The Nixon Presidency

I. The Nixon Presidency

A. A Narrow Victory (1968)
1. With LBJ out, Robert Kennedy’s assassination after winning the CA primary, and Eugene McCarthy’s “Radical agenda”, the Democrats nominated the more conservative Hubert Humphrey (LBJ’s VP)
2. Third party candidate George Wallace gathered support with a pro-segregation, white supremacist platform,
3. Despite having lost the presidential election in 1960 and CA gubernatorial election of 1962, Nixon managed to get the Republican nomination.
4. Criticizing civil unrest “radicals” school integration and promising an end to Vietnam, Nixon gathered support from working class “forgotten Americans”
5. With Wallace getting 14% and Humphrey 38%, Nixon won by a narrow margin. The Senate and House remained Democrat.

B. Nixon’s Foreign Policy
1. Kissinger was selected as Secretary of State; advocated “realpolitik” (do what’s best, don’t stand for values)
2. Vietnam- while wanting to pull out, Nixon’s propriety was “peace with honor”; Nixon escalated attacks on North Vietnam, Cambodia and Laos to force North Vietnam to negotiations. After heavy bombing of North Vietnamese cities, the Paris Accords of 1973, officially ending hostilities between the US and North Vietnam.
3. Détente- Nixon’s Policy of reducing tensions with the communist powers.
4. Seizing upon the growing rift between China and the USSR, Nixon finally recognized the People’s Republic of China and flew there to meet with Mao Zedong in 1972 thus reestablishing political and economic relations.
5. Later the same year, Nixon went to the Soviet Union and brokered the SALT I (Strategic Arms Limitation Treaty) imposing limits on AMB (Anti-ballistic missile) systems and freezing nuclear weapons production for 5 years.
6. Kissinger eventually achieved an end to the oil embargo and a ceasefire between Israel and the Arab coalition of Egypt, Syria and Jordan in 1975.
7. In less developed countries, Nixon supported non-communist but repressive government (Philippines, Argentina, Brazil, Nigeria, S. Korea and the Portuguese in Angola) and funded a coup to oust democratically elected (but Marxist) Salvador Allende in Chile.
8. Nixon Doctrine- avoiding military interaction, but instead financially supporting non-communists.

C. Domestic policy
1. Approved much liberal legislation including wage and price controls, affirmative action, nationwide voting wage of 18, environmental and endangered species protection, established the EPA and OSHA.
2. Faced with Stagflation (Stagnation and Inflation) and the oil embargo, Nixon devalued the dollar and increased deficit spending but the economy remained stagnant until the 80s
3. Promooted a tough stance toward “radicals” through government harassment (IRS, FBI, CIA) and eventually, more covert and sometimes illegal means (Liddy and Hunt;s “plumbers”
4. Won vital support in the South, stalling integration by stopping court mandated busing.
5. Nominated 4 Supreme Court justices who were more conservative (but still somewhat liberal to get Senate approval)

D. Nixon’s Fall From Grace
1. To ensure reelection in 1972, Nixon created the Committee to Reelect the President (CREEP) to play “dirty tricks” on the Democrats.
2. Led by Liddy and Hunt (the “plumbers”) CREEP engaged in creating discord and spying on Democrats.
3. A CREEP agent was arrested in a botched break-in of the Democratic National Committee headquarters in the Watergate building in june 1972. Nixon was not immediately implicated and won the AElection of 1972 in a landslide.
4. In 1973, the Senate and House began to investigate CREEP’s illegal activities.
5. Later that year, VP Agnew resigned due to income tax evasion.
6. In 1974, the House Judiciary Committee subpoenaed and gained access to recordings from Nixon’s Oval Office wiretaps.
7. With evidence from the tapes, the House initiated impeachment proceedings on three counts: obstruction of justice for impeding Watergate Investigation, abuse of power for partisan use of FBI and IRS, and contempt of Congress.
8. On August 9, 1974, Nixon resigned and his newly appointed VP Ford became President, pardoning Nixon.

Chapter 29 Notes: Major events of Vietnam

I. Vietnam -- major events and chronology of US involvement

• 1950 -- US begins to provide financial assistance to French.


• 1954 -- Geneva accord divides Vietnam; Diem comes to power with US backing.


• 1955 -- French pullout; US military advisers begin training South Vietnamese.


• 1960 -- Vietcong (North Vietnamese-backed insurgency group in South Vietnam) created.


• 1961 -- Laos is lost; JFK intensifies US involvement.


• 1963 -- Buddhist monk protests; Diem overthrown and killed by CIA-backed coup; 16,000 US military advisors in S. Vietnam.


• 1964 -- Gulf of Tonkin Resolution allows LBJ to escalate military actions without congressional approval; US bombing of N. Vietnam begins.


• 1965 -- US combat troops land in Danang; 184,000 American troops on the ground by year's end.


• 1966 -- 385,000 US troops; B52 bombing of north begins.


• 1967 -- Beginning of anti-war demonstrations; Senate hearings on Vietnam begin; 485,600 troops.


• 1968 -- Tet Offensive -- Vietcong (with North Vietnamese army) attack major South Vietnamese cities, US forces repel the attack, killing 37,000 enemy troops in one month; My Lai Massacre -- US troops kill, rape and torture 500 villagers, army initially covers it up; LBJ announces that he won't run; peace talks with North Vietnam begin in Paris; 536,000 troops.


• 1969 -- bombing of Cambodia begins; US begins to withdraw troops; anti-war protests intensify; Ho Chi Minh dies; 475,000 troops at year's end.


• 1970 -- US and S. Vietnam invade Cambodia; Kent State killings, student protests close 400 universities; Congress repeals Gulf of Tonkin Resolution and limits US role in Cambodia; 334,600 US troops.


• 1971 -- Invasion of Laos (Ho Chi Minh trail); 400,000 person anti-war protest in D.C.


• 1972 -- N. Vietnam launches ground offensive (Easter Offensive); US bombing or North escalates; US ground troops leave Vietnam; Secretary of State Kissinger orchestrates peace treaty that South Vietnam rejects; 24,200 US troops.


• 1973 -- Paris Peace Treaty signed between US, North and South Vietnam and the Vietcong; US draft ends; beginning of US POW release, US ends all bombing; less than 250 US troops in Vietnam.


• 1974 -- New war between North and South Vietnam.


• 1975 -- South Vietnam surrenders to N. Vietnam; Khmer Rouge comes to power in Cambodia (kills 40% of population); leftist regime comes to power in Laos; President Ford's request for aid to S. Vietnam rejected by Congress.


• US death toll -- 58,000; over 300,000 wounded; 500,000 dishonorably discharged out of 2.5 million who served; rampat drug use -- 2 out of 3 smoked marijuana, 1 out of 3 used heroin; cost of US involvement: $150 billion.


• Vietnamese death toll -- over 2 million!

Notes for April 22 (Chapter 28 end, Chapter 29 beginning)

Since a good chunk of kids-- including the Operation APUSH chief herself-- were missing today, here are the last half of the Chapter 28 notes and the start of Chapter 29. This is all we have for the week.

Chapter 28

II. Civil Rights and Protest in the Turbulet 60's

A. African American Civil Rights

1. Freedom rides organized by CORE in the summer of 1961.


2. Sit-ins at lunch counter around the south.


3. 63 -- Birmingham protests led by MLK turn violent as police attacks mercilessly; prompts JFK to propose Civil Rights Act.


4. 1963 March on Washington -- 250k people present, LK delivers "I have a Dream Speech".


5. 1963 -- Medgar Evers, head of NAACP, assassinated in Mississippi.


6. 1964 -- Miss. Freedom Summer Project - African American voter registration drive.


7. 1965 -- Voting Rights Act pushed by LBG - invalidated the use of tests, other mechanisms to disencranchise blacks; black voter registration in the South increased from 1 million in 1964 to 3.1 million in 1968.


8. 1965-1968 -- sit-ins, other peaceful demonstrations continued but violence began to increase, particularly after Malcolm X's assassination in 1965 and MLK's in 1968.

B. African-American Violent Protest

1. Black Power movements -- first led by Malcolm X of the Nation of Islam, then by the Black Panthers (led by Huey Newton), advocated euqliaty by any means necessary.


2. Watts Riot (1965) -- young African-Americans fought police and burned white-owned business; riots ensuded in other cities.


3. 1965-1968 -- violent race riots occurred in over 100 cities.

C. Hisapnic-Americans

1. César Chavez and the United Farm Workers led boycotts, other peaceful protests to win rights for Mexican-Americans in the Southwest.


2. 1967 -- Aztlan Chicano Movement resisted assimilation and arranged boycotts of "racist" college classes throughout the West.

D. Women

1. Publication of The Feminine Mystique by Betty Friedan (1963).


2. NOW established in 1966, uses political system to create liberal change.


3. Women's Liberation Movement -- came out of the anti-war movement, led deomnstrations and brought attention to gender inequality.


4. Women's reproductive rights -- the pill, other contraceptives gained acceptance in the 1960's, Roe v. Wade protects abortion rights starting in 1972.

E. Gay Rights

1. Stonewall Riot (1969) -- gay men fight back against an unfair police raid.


2. 1973 -- American Psychological Society rescinds statement that homosexuality is a mental illness.


3. 1975 -- The US Civil Service commission ended ban on government employment of homosexuals.

Chapter 29 Notes

I. Vietnam -- major events and chronology of US involvement

• 1950 -- US begins to provide financial assistance to French.


• 1954 -- Geneva accord divides Vietnam; Diem comes to power with US backing.


• 1955 -- French pullout; US military advisers begin training South Vietnamese.


• 1960 -- Vietcong (North Vietnamese-backed insurgency group in South Vietnam) created.


• 1961 -- Laos is lost; JFK intensifies US involvement.


• 1963 -- Buddhist monk protests; Diem overthrown and killed by CIA-backed coup; 16,000 US military advisors in S. Vietnam.


• 1964 -- Gulf of Tonkin Resolution allows LBJ to escalate military actions without congressional approval; US bombing of N. Vietnam begins.


• 1965 -- US combat troops land in Danang; 184,000 American troops on the ground by year's end.


• 1966 -- 385,000 US troops; B52 bombing of north begins.


• 1967 -- Beginning of anti-war demonstrations; Senate hearings on Vietnam begin; 485,600 troops.


• 1968 -- Tet Offensive -- Vietcong (with North Vietnamese army) attack major South Vietnamese cities, US forces repel the attack, killing 37,000 enemy troops in one month; My Lai Massacre -- US troops kill, rape and torture 500 villagers, army initially covers it up; LBJ announces that he won't run; peace talks with North Vietnam begin in Paris; 536,000 troops.


• 1969 -- bombing of Cambodia begins; US begins to withdraw troops; anti-war protests intensify; Ho Chi Minh dies; 475,000 troops at year's end.


• 1970 -- US and S. Vietnam invade Cambodia; Kent State killings, student protests close 400 universities; Congress repeals Gulf of Tonkin Resolution.

Chapter 27 Notes, Part II

C. Ike and the Cold War

1. Eisenhower continued Truman’s containment policy
2. As promised, he brought an end to the Korean War in 1953
3. To appease Republican hawks, Ike chose John Foster Dulles as Secretary of state. Dulles was rabidly anticommunist and an advocate of brinksmanship
4. Missile detection/defense systems were put in place in Alaska, a US missile command center created in the Rockies, and extensive (112,000) sq ft) bunker for the US government was set up in W. Virginia.
5. CIA actions- Operation Ajax (overthrew Iranian government and put Shah Reza Pahalvi in power) placed pro-American leaders in Philippines, Guatemala and South Vietnam; intensified anti-Soviet propaganda around the world.
6. Vietnam-France was having difficulty fighting off an insurgency led by the communist Ho Chi Minh movement and called for US assistance. A peace conference was held that divided Vietnam into Communist North and US-backed ‘democratic’ government led by unpopular Ngo Dinh Diem in the South until an election could be held in 1956 to reunify the country. When it became clear that the Ho Chi Minh would easily win the election, Diem and the US decided to keep Vietnam as 2 separate countries.
7. Suez crisis- Egyptian leader Nasser nationalized the British controlled Suez Canal. Britain, France, and Israel coordinated an attack to take the canal back by force. When the Soviets threatened to intervene, Ike persuaded the allies to withdraw.
8. Eisenhower Doctrine- US to use military aid and force to assist any Middle Eastern nation threatened by communist aggression. (Extension of Truman Doctrine of containment)
9. U2 Crisis (1960)- a US spy plane was shot down over USSR. US denied the existence of the plane but was forced to admit it once the Russians displayed the capture pilot on TV.
10. Cuba- Fidel Castro successfully overthrew US sponsored dictator Fulgencio Batista. Attempted to meet with US officials but was turned away; reached out for Soviet assistance instead.

Chapter 27 Notes, Part I (?)

I. The Eisenhower Presidency


A. Domestic Politics

1. McCarthy’s accusations, the stalemate in Korea, 20 years of Democratic Rule, and Eisenhower’s standing as a war hero easily allowed Republicans Eisenhower and Nixon to win the 1952 election over “egghead” Democrat Adlai Stevenson
2. Viewed as a return to peace and stability
3. Centrist who chose a path between Democratic liberalism and Republican conservatism
4. Restrained view of presidential authority- rarely intervened in legislative process (of course, Congress was Republican during his tenure).
5. Focused on balancing the federal budget; however, income tax reductions, minor recessions in ’53 and ’57, intensification of the cold war and arms race, as well as costly domestic programs (Interstate Highway System, St Lawrence Seaway, increased public housing and social security) led to growth of federal deficit from $257 billion in 950 to $291 billion by 1961
6. Ike disliked McCarthy but benefited from his rhetoric. Eventually, McCarthy antagonized the army (accused it of also being a haven for commies) leading to nationally televised Senate hearings in which the country got to see McCarthy at his worst. He was censured in 1954; died in 1957

B. Civil rights in the 50s
1. Eisenhower appointed Earl Warren as Chief Justice in 1953. The Warren Court would prove to be very proactive on Civil Rights legislation
2. Brown vs. Board of Education of Topeka- The Court unanimously ruled that separate was inherently unequal in education, thus reversing the 1896 Plessy vs. Ferguson decision. The Court called for gradual school desegregation.
3. Desegregation began to occur in the upper south; however in the Deep South, politicians and the public were bitterly opposed to it
4. Little Rock Nine (1957) nine African American students attempted to attend classes at Central High School in Little Rock, Arkansas. The Arkansas Governor called out the National Guard to block the students from entering the building. In response, Eisenhower sent federal troops to ensure the safety of the nine African American students. 90% of white Americans outside the South approved of Eisenhower’s action, lending support to the Civil Rights movement.
5. Civil Rights Act of 1957 and 1960- Proposed by Eisenhower, established a commission to investigate the systemic disenfranchisement of African Americans in the South.
6. Montgomery Bus Boycott (1955-56)- led by the Rev Martin Luther King Jr, after Rosa Parks effused to give up her seat to a white passenger. Dr King organized a year long bus boycott which led the Supreme Court to outlaw segregation in buses (Browder v Gayle, 1959)

Chapter 26 Notes

Chapter 26

I. The Postwar Boom


A. WWII Hangover?
1. Armed forces greatly reduced from 12 million in 1945 to 1.5 million by 1948.
2. Defense spending dropped from $76 billion in 1945 to $20 billion in 1946, leading to a loss of one million jobs in the defense industry.
3. Returning soldiers struggled to fit into a transformed economy.

B. G.I. Bill of Rights
1. Enacted in 1944 to soften the blow of an expected postwar recession by easing soldiers back into the work force.
2. Provided veterans with healthcare benefits, occupational counseling up to 52 weeks of unemployment payments as well as priority for certain jobs.
3. Government also provided low-interest loans for veterans to purchase homes and start businesses.
4. Moreover, $14.5 billion was spent between 1945- 1956 to pay for the education of 5.7 million veterans, allowing them eventual access to higher-paying professional jobs
5. This massive government subsidy not only helped veterans return to work but also increased demand for goods and services thus boosting the economy.

C. Other factors
1. Soldiers and people working in the war industries had saved $135 billion during WWII. With more leisure time and the renewed availability of consumer goods after the war, spending spiked.
2. 1945 tax cut for businesses led companies to increase capital spending.
3. Bretton Woods Agreement (1944)- creating of the International Monetary Fund (IMF) to stabilize global currencies and the World Bank to help Europe and Asia rebuild. Bretton Woods also led to the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT, 1947), which greatly reduced tariffs other international trade barriers.
4. As the only major economy untouched by the war, the US could buy raw materials cheaply (low demand) and sell industrial products (and agricultural products) to rebuilding nations (Europeans often used Marshall Plan funds to buy US goods).
5. 35% increase in industrial productivity due to automation and other scientific advances
6. Increase in military spending as the US enters the arms race with the Soviet Union (after Soviets detonate an atomic bomb in 1949) and the Korean War (1950-1953). Defense budget increases nearly 4X during the decade.


II. Early Cold War

A. Eastern Europe
1. Disagreements between the US and the Soviet Union began over the fate of Eastern Europe, which Stalin insisted should be a ‘buffer zone’ and a Soviet sphere of influence.
2. Truman viewed Soviet control of Eastern Europe as a betrayal of democratic aims and as a dangerous appeasement of a dictatorial, totalitarian regime.
3. Economically, Soviet control of Eastern Europe would close off valuable access to markets and sources of raw materials
4. Politically, Truman and the Democratic Party feared that a soft stance against Stalin would lead to a loss of support from Eastern-European-American voters.
5. Emboldened by US monopoly of nuclear weapons and public opinion, Truman decided to take a tough stance against Stalin immediately after WWII
6. In early 1946, Stalin closed Eastern Europe to American business and influence
7. Arms race began as US pushed to increase nuclear arsenal and the Soviet Union spared no expense to develop an atomic bomb (August 1949). By 1953, both countries possessed hydrogen or thermonuclear bombs (10x more powerful than the bombs used in Hiroshima and Nagasaki)

B. Containment
1. Concerned that Stalin wanted to also seize control of Turkey and Greece (for dominance in the Mediterranean and the Middle East), Truman pushed for military assistance for these countries ($400 million)- this was the beginning of the Truman Doctrine (Containment).
2. Truman Doctrine vowed that the US would assist nations threatened by Communist takeover.
3. National Security Act of 1947- established the National Security Council (NSC) to advise the President and the CIA to gather information and perform covert operations. It also began the transformation of the War and Navy Departments into the Department of Defense and led to the creation of the Joint Chiefs of Staff.
4. Marshall Plan- Massive financial assistance ($17 billion) to keep Western Europe (especially France and Italy) from falling to Communism
5. North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO)- US joined the Western European military alliance, which vows mutual defense (thus extending our nuclear umbrella to Western Europe)


III. The Cold War gets Hot

A. Berlin Crisis
1. 1948- Stalin blocks overland access to West Berlin in response to allies unifying their zones (American, French, and British).
2. Berlin Airlift- led by the US, allies began a massive airlift to supply West Berlin residents (supply planes landing every three minutes for almost one year)
3. US sends B-29s to bases in England and Truman hints that he will use the bomb if necessary
4. Stalin relented in May 1949
5. Allies move to create and rearm a West German state (Federal Republic of Germany), Soviets respond by creating the German Democratic Republic (East Germany)
6. US joins NATO in July 1949

B. Korean War
1. Having failed to block the Communist Party’s success in China, Truman was under pressure to take a tough stance in Asia
2. After WWII, Korea had been split into north and south along the 38th parallel
3. In June 1950, North Korea invaded South Korea, controlling most of the territory by September
4. Truman deployed US military (without declaring war) under General MacArthur to counter the offensive. Within two weeks, South Korean and US forces pushed the North Koreans back almost to the Chinese border
5. Later the same year, Chinese Forces (300,000) joined the North Koreans pushing South Korean and US forces back to the 38th parallel
6. Trench warfare ensued around the 38th parallel for the next two years
7. After a long and costly stalemate, an armistice was reached in July 1953 which kept Korea split at the 38th Parallel
8. The Conflict cost the lives of 54,000 Americans, 900,00 Chinese and 800,000 North and South Korean soldiers. It also caused 2 million civilian deaths due to carpet-bombing and famine
9. The Korean War also set the precedent for “undeclared war” by the US, increased the animosity with China, Prompted US involvement in Vietnam, set the stage for a McCarthyism (the 2nd Red Scare) and intensified the economic boom


IV. The Cold War at Home

A. Insuring Loyalty
1. Exposure of a spy ring that had provided atomic secrets to the Soviets in 1945 as well as State Department leaks to a pro-Communist magazine raised fear and prompted criticism that Truman was soft on communism
2. In reaction, Truman established the Federal Employee Loyalty Program (1947)- barring anyone associated with the Communist Party or of questionable “sympathetic association” from Federal employment
3. 4.7 million job holders and employees underwent “loyalty checks” between 1947-1952
4. Beyond association with the Communist Party, other signs of disloyalty included: liking foreign films, favoring unions or civil rights and being gay

B. Anti-Communist Crusade
1. Truman’s measures set off a chain of events to uncover subversives
2. J. Edgar Hoover, still head of the FBI, led the crusade to uncover reds on college campuses
3. State and local governments as well as major corporations began their own loyalty programs
4. In 1947, the House Un-American Activities Committee (HUAC) was set up and began hearings. In 1950, McCarthy began similar hearings in the Senate
5. HUAC not only investigated “subversives” in government but also in major industries, particularly Hollywood. Studios began to blacklist anyone (Orson Welles, Charlie Chaplin and many others) associated with subversive activities and canceling any productions that could be deemed “subversive”

C. Anti-Communism turns on Truman
1. Alger Hiss-US State Department Official accused of being linked to the communist Party, he was eventually convicted, setting off allegations that the Truman administration and the Democratic Party were teeming with Communists
2. Julius and Ethel Rosenberg (1950)- accused, convicted and sentenced to death for alleged role in passing atomic secrets to the soviet union
3. Joe McCarthy- Republican senator, elected in 1946 by falsely claming to be a wounded WWII veteran. Joe McCarthy concocted a list of “commiecrats” in the Truman Administration, Senate hearings were held and proved McCarthy’s accusations to be a hoax. Still McCarthy continued his persecution throughout the Korean War and gained appeal among some conservatives, blue-collar workers and Democratic Catholics.

Chapter 25 Notes: Ramifications of World War II

Domestic

1. Economic Expansion -- GNP grows from $100 billion to $210 billion between 1940-1945, national debt from $40 billion to $260 billion.


2. US government budget increased from $9.5 billion to $92 billion between 1940-1945. Tax revenue increased 20-fold. (!)


3. Mass population movement -- 15 million men moved because of military service. 6 million people (mostly from South) moved away from farms to work in urban areas.


4. Growth of Western cities, Sunbelt industrialization. Cities like San Diego (+90%), Albuquerque (+100%), Seattle, Denver, etc. saw huge population increases.


5. Wages increased dramatically - average yearly salary more than doubled between 1940 and 1945; size of middle class also doubled. (!)


6. Organized labor -- union membership increased from 9 million to 15 million during war (35% of nonagricultural employment); unions became more politically conservative.


7. Women in the workforce increased from less than 25% to over 33% between 1940-1945. Large increase in married women working (divorce rate increased from 16% to 27%).


8. Increased African American participation in industrial workforce, civil service -- average yearly salary increased from $457 to $1976. One million African Americans served in armed forces, 7,000 black officers by 1945. Increased self-esteem, educational opportunities for black veterans led to Civil Rights movement.
   
9. Increased opportunities for Native Americans in industry, armed forces (Navajo “code talkers”) -- move away from reservations; established National Congress of American Indians to defend past treaties, reservations.


10. Mexican-Americans -- 350,000 served in Armed Forces (non-segregated units), U.S. government negotiated temporary worker agreement with Mexico.


11. Japanese-Americans -- over 100,000 Japanese, Japanese--Americans confined to “relocation centers”, forced to sell their property at an estimated loss of $2 billion. In effort to show loyalty, 100,000 Japanese-Americans joined army. One Japanese-American combat unit was most decorated in WWII.


12. Homosexuals in the military -- thousands of gay men, women fought in WWII but were often discriminated against. Veteran’s Benevolent Association became first major gay rights organization.


13. Higher Education -- Government spent $14.5 billion between 1945-1956 to send 5.7 million veterans to college, technical schools through the GI Bill.

International

1. Yalta Conference -- The Yalta Conference, sometimes called the Crimea Conference, was the wartime meeting from February 4, to 11, 1945 between the heads of government of the United States, the United Kingdom, and the Soviet Union. Delegations were headed by Franklin D. Roosevelt, Winston Churchill, and Joseph Stalin, respectively. Made the unconditional surrender of Germany the primary goal of the Allies. Stalin agreed to assist the US in its war with Japan 90 days after Nazi surrender and to recognize Chiang Kai-shek as the legitimate ruler of China. Stalin also agreed to bring the Soviet Union into the U.N., as long as security council members would have veto power. First wartime conference was in Tehran, then Cairo (Roosevelt did not attend), and Yalta.


2. United Nations -- United Nations established in 1945 as a replacement for the League of Nations. Today, five main victors of WWII comprise the Security Council permanent members with veto power: the United States of America, Russia (replaced the Soviet Union), the United Kingdom, France, and the People’s Republic of China (which replaced the Republic of China).


3. Nuremberg Trials (1946-1949) -- international court set up for trials of high level Nazi officials for war crimes, crimes against humanity. Famous convictions -- Hess and Göring.


4. The creation of Israel and an independent Arab state (in the former British colony of Palestine) is endorsed by UN in November 1947. State of Israel was proclaimed in Tel Aviv on May 14, 1948.


5. Marshall Plan (named after US Secretary of State, George Marshall) 1947-1952. US donated $13 billion for Europe to rebuild (money divided on a per capita basis -- UK, France, Germany, Italy got the bulk).


6. 1947 -- “Truman Doctrine” - calls for the containment of Communism. “the policy of the United States to support free peoples who are resisting attempted subjugation by armed minorities or by outside pressures.”


7. 1948 -- Berlin Blockade - Soviet Union controlled East Germany where Berlin located. Berlin divided into East (Soviet controlled) and West (US, UK, France controlled). To starve out the Western forces, Soviet forces denied passage of supplies over East Germany territory thus blockading W. Berlin. US led a massive airlift of supplies, eventually the Soviets relented.


8. Chinese Revolution (1911-1949) -- Chiang Kai-shek (Jiang Jie Shi) ruled between 1925-1949 as head of the Guangdong (Nationalist Government). Fought civil war with Communists under Mao Dzedong between 1946-1949. Mao emerged victorious as Guangdong government and army fled to Taiwan allowing the Communist Party to establish the People’s Republic of China.

In case you hadn't found it already...

Trinkner.org

Chapter 24 Notes

I. The Great Depression

A. The Stock Market Crashes

1. On Black Thursday (10/24/29) and Black Tuesday (10/29/29), the stock market collapsed
2. The ’29 crash lasted 71 days and dropped the Dow Jones Industrial Average (DJIA) from 381 to 198 for a staggering 48% loss
3. The market recovered in the first half of 1930 then began to decline again
4. The 1930-32 bear market lasted 813 days, dopping the DJIA from 294 to 41 points, a whopping 86% loss
5. In the 30’s the market was unstable- major crashes in ‘37-3’8 and ‘39-‘42
6. The DJIAA would not recover to 1929 levels until 1954!
7. Unlike earlier stock crashes, the declines in 1929 affected an unprecedented number of people
8. Sensationalist press coverage led to national panic

B. Underlying causes of the depression
1. Overproduction caused by new assembly line methods
2. Deminshed demand- people who could already 9wned new products, others couldn’t afford them (wages had not kept up with corporate profits)
3. Credit purchases (too much borrowing) and lack of savings
4. Agricultural economy was already depressed during the 20s
5. High interest rates choked off money supply, keeping companies from investing in more infrastructure and employees
6. Weakened by WWI and debt payments, European economies also collapsed thus compounding the problem

C. Effects of the Depression
1. Widespread bank failutes (5,500 banks closed by 1933) many customer deposits were lost
2. Bankruptcies and reduced production in all industries shrank GNP and caused massive layoffs
3. Increased hours and lower wages led to strikes
4. Unemployment rose to 25% nationwide, as high as 80% in some areas
5. Commodity prices declines as much as 60%; unable to pay mortgages, farmers lost their land to banks or abandoned their farms.
6. Unemployed who couldn’t pay their debts also lost assets (homes, cars, etc)
7. Rampant homelessness (Hoovervilles) and hunger (Soup kitchens)
8. Unused farmland in the Midwest and Great Plains exacerbated “dust bowls” effect
9. Suicides increased by 32%


II. Government Response

A. Hoover Administration
1. Unlike past presidents, hoover believed that governement should intervene
2. However, he felt that the federal government should focus on assisting business while direct relief for people should be managed by local initiatives
3. to increase employment, he encouraged local governments to undertake public work projects. Established the Emergency Committee for Employment (1930) to coordinate these efforts.
4. National Credit Corporation (1931)- private agency to help smaller banks.
5. Reconstruction Finance Corporation (1923)- federal agency that would make loans to banks and insurance companies as well as grant money to local governments for public works
6. Hoover’s rrough handling of protest (particularly against WWI vets in Washington DC) together with his optimistic notion that recovery was “just around the corner” and perceived friendliness toward big business caused him to lose the election in 1932.

B. Roosevelt Administration
1. FDR was a relief-orientated governor of NY and was viewed as less polarizing than the Democrat’s 1928 nominee Al Smith.
2. Offering no clear program but exuding confidence and stressing the need for bold experimentation and assisting the poorest, FDR won a landslide victory. The Democrats also won strong majorities in Congress.
3. FDR and his “brain trust” established far-reaching legislation between 1933-1939, known as the New Deal
4. The New Deal comprised of legislation focusing on FDR’s 3 Rs- Relief, Recovery, and Reform. Early measures tended to stress relief and recovery while later measures generally focused on reform
5. The New Deal is viewed as a major upheaval for the American economy- leading to a shift from laissez-faire, market regulated economy to unprecedented government involvement and regulation. The New Deal also shifted the focus of government to direct involvement in people’s welfare and assimilated many “Socialistic” principles.

Chapter 23 Notes (UPDATED)

The Roaring 20’s

I. Return to Normalcy: Politics in the 20’s

A. Harding’s Presidency (1921-1923)
1. Nominated by the Republican Party for unremarkable background
2. A Newspaper editor from Marion, Ohio
3. Easily defeats Democratic candidate (Cox)
4. Biggest accomplishment: Washington Naval Arms Conference- an arms control treaty that limited battleship construction
5. Refused to join League of Nations or its international court
6. Administration marred by corruption and scandal
7. Died of heart attack in 1923
8. Teapot Dome Scandal (1924) was the most infamous (Interior secretary Albert Fall convicted of accepting 400k bribe

B. Calvin Coolidge
1. Harding’s VP from Vermont
2. Beat a divided Democratic Party in the election of 1924
3. Aloof and removed from the common people-refused to provide any federal aid for a major flood along the Mississippi River.
4. Business friendly- appointed Andrew Mellon as Secretary of the Treasury (reduced taxes on the wealthy, espoused trickledown economics). Taft as Chief Justice (reversed anti-child labor law), increased tariffs (Fordney McCumber Tariff), alienated farmers by vetoing McNary Haugen bill.
5. Foreign policy: Sought war reparations from Germany, protected US corporate interests in Mexico

C. Herbert Hoover (on your own)

II. The Booming Economy

A. Increasing Wages
1. Henry Ford established the $5/day standard for industrial workers
2. Business began to note that higher wages increased productivity and reduced dissent (unions declined during this time)

B. Explosion of New Products
1. Electrical gadgets- radios, refrigerators, washing machines, vacuum cleaners etc
2. Automobiles- assembly line production pioneered by Ford reduced prices and made cars more accessible. Credit also facilitated purchases. By 1930, 60% of American families owned cars and the auto industry accounted for 9% of wages in manufacturing.
3. Energy- electrical utility companies, oil and coal production skyrocketed

C. The Advertising Industry
1. By 1929, advertising was $2 billion business that employed 600000 persons
2. Use of celebrities to promote products


III. Society in the 1920’s

A. Rapid urbanization
1. By 1920, the urban population finally outnumbered the rural population
2. Improved urban planning- increase in services (water, gas, electricity, and development of skyscrapers)
3. Cars led to traffic jams, parking problems and the growth of suburbs
4. African Americans moved to northern cities in massive numbers

B. Changes for women
1. League of Women Voters- moved polling places out of saloons, promoted federal support for education and infant care.
2. Consumer society influenced many women to move away from politics and revert to traditional feminine roles
3. The % of women in the workforce remained the same throughout the decade (24%) wages remained unequal, and women shifted away from industrial work to office jobs.
4. By 1930, 12% of female high school grads went on to college, 50000 received degrees that year

C. Changes for African Americans
1. Huge influx of African Americans into Northern cities, particularly New York, Chicago and Detroit.
2. First African American Congressman since Reconstruction- Oscar De Priest from Chicago’s south side!
3. Harlem Renaissance- increased visibility and participation of African Americans in popular culture, sparked by returning African-American WWI vets; created major artists/celebrities- Langston Hughes, Zora Neale Hurston, Duke Ellington, Louis Armstrong, Ella Fitzgerald, and many more, mostly an artistic and social rather than political movement, increased contact between people of different ethnicities.
4. Marcus Garvey- militant African-American leader who advocated equality now, voluntary separation from whites, and a return to Africa. Exiled back to Jamaica for controversial views.

Presentation notes (Racism & The Red Scare not included)

Remember, kids, Quiz on chapter 22 tomorrow! Yippee.

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Presentation Notes

• Women in WWI

➢ Many opposed the war (Jane Addams), but eventually rose to help out in order to gain rights
➢ Took factory jobs for war effort, jobs men vacated- had previously been typists and other white-collar jobs, although veterans took back their jobs at the end of the war.
➢ Progressive reform in the army- allied with progressive women to pass 19th amendment
➢ Women’s rights activists
o Cat & Shaw created women’s suffrage association
➢ Wilson acknowledged that women earned the right to vote through their service during the war.
➢ Growing their own food was a big part of this

• African Americans in the war
➢ They joined the army on WEB Dubois’ urging
➢ In segregated units
➢ AEF- American Expeditionary Force
➢ Blacks were mainly in menial jobs, although many ended up in France
➢ Some saw combat though- 4 black regiments serving under the French Supreme Commander and they received rewards for their service
➢ Germans attempted to force blacks to desert showering them with propaganda about how bad being a black in America was
➢ No medals of honor awarded to blacks until posthumously in 1991
➢ Many black veterans felt they deserved better treatment


• Dissent during WWI
➢ Major groups dissenting:
o Germans
o Quakers
o COs- forced into menial jobs
➢ Often mistreated and discriminated against
➢ Espionage Act of 1919
o Let government fine and imprison anyone who was antiwar
➢ Sedition Act
o Gave government the right to give heavy penalties to anyone who spoke against the US
➢ Schenck Vs US
o Tried to mail antigovernment leaflets
o Found guilty, sentenced to 6 months
o Clear and present danger- ability to take away rights during dangerous times
o ‘Fire in a Theatre’ argument
➢ Eugene Debs vs. US
o Labor leader
o Supposedly in violation of espionage & sedition acts
o Ran for president out of jail
➢ Government attempted to increase patriotism
o Posters
o Government-approved magazine, some socialist newspapers shut down
o Also withheld mail.

➢ Treaty of Versailles
o 1919- allies met to discuss punitive measures against Germany
o Because of this treaty,
• Germany was fined $56 billion dollars, lost 13% of their population, 50% of iron and steel industry, 16% of coal mines, caused collapse of German economy
• Drastically altered geography- lots of new eastern countries
o Poland finally gained independence
o Alsace-Lorraine went to France
o Baltic states became their own countries-Lithuania, Estonia, Latvia
• German colonies were divided among allies
• Rhineland was demilitarized
• No aircraft, no military for Germany
• Led to the rise of Hitler

➢ 14 Points of the treaty of Versailles
• Wilson’s input, believed it would end conflict forever
• 7 points had to do with territory
• Other 7
• Self-determination for people of former empires
• Colonial disputes must take into account the colonized people
• World of free navigation- freedom of the seas
• Free trade
• Reduced armaments
• Openly negotiated treaties- no more secret alliances
• General association to resolve conflicts- League of Nations, later to become UN
o US fails to join League of Nations, leading to rise of Hitler

Chapter 22 Notes

I. US Foreign Policy (1902-1914)

A. Asia-Pacific
1. Involvement began with a treaty to share control of Samoa in the 1880’s the annexation of Hawaii, Spanish-American War and occupation of the Philippines.
2. In the late 1890’s the US focused its efforts on gaining access to the Chinese market
3. Russia, Germany, Great Britain and Japan pressured the weakened Manchu Chi’ing Empire of China for “spheres of influence”
4. The US grew concerned that imperial powers would use their “spheres of influence” to block US commercial opportunities in China
5. Secretary of State John Hay devised the “Open Door” policy, an informal agreement that imperial powers would allow other countries to use ports within their spheres of influence in order to trade with China.
6. The US military’s role in suppressing the Boxer Rebellion in Beijing (1900) bolstered US bargaining power vis-à-vis European occupants. The Open Door policy was in effect until the 1930’s.
7. TR also played a major diplomatic role as Russia and Japan went to war for control of Manchuria and Korea in 1904. TR hosted a peace conference in Portsmouth NH, which ended the conflict. He was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize for his role in diffusing this crisis (as well as crises in Venezuela and the Dominican Republic)
8. To intimidate the Japanese, TR sent the “Great White Fleet” on a training mission to Japan in 1907

B. Latin America
1. Gunboat Diplomacy and the Panama Canal
a. Under TR, the US purchased a French company’s canal concession for $40 million
b. However, Colombia refused a US offer of $10 million for a 99 year lease to operate the proposed canal (Hay Herran Treaty)
c. Working with Philippe Bunau-Varill (an official of the French company who feared losing the $40 million deal), the US helped people in the Panama region of Colombia and declare independence from Colombia.
d. With a US warship nearby, Panamanians declared independence in 1903; TR immediately recognized the new nation.
e. A treaty with new Panamanian government granted the US control of the Canal Zone in perpetuity (Hay Bunau-Varilla Treaty)
f. The Panama Canal was built between 1906 and 1914
2. Big Stick and Dollar Diplomacy in the Caribbean

a. Venezuela 1902- European creditors blocked and bombed Venezuelan ports when the country defaulted on its debts. TR stepped in and offered to mediated.
b. Roosevelt Corollary (1904)- addendum to the Monroe Doctrine of 1923; the US has the right to intervene in the affairs of any Latin American nation perpetrating “chronic wrongdoing”
c. US takes on “financial supervision” of Dominican Republic (1905) and Haiti in 1916 until 1941. Also stations troops in both countries for most of that time to protect US commercial interests and foster “democratic” reform.
d. Under Taft’s administration, the US blocked growing British influence in Nicaragua by blocking a revolution (1917) US station troops there in 1933 to protect this revolution

3. Wilson and the Mexican Revolution

a. US businesses had invested $2billion in Mexico and as many as 40000 Americans were living there when revolution broke out in 1911
b. Wilson refused to recognize the government of General Huerta in Mexico ostensibly because of the bloody manner in which it gained power in 1913
c. Wilson authorized the sale of weapons to General Carranza (Huerta’s rival), blockaded the port of Veracruz and sent 7000 troops to help Carranza take power. Huerta left office
d. To stop Pancho Villa’s raids on US border town in 1916, Wilson overreacted by sending General Pershing into Mexican territory and 150000 National Guardsmen to the border. These action led to strained US-Mexican relation for years to follow.
e. Roosevelt, Taft and Wilson’s policies in Latin America established a tradition of American Paternalism and Imperialism in that area. This has led to a distrust of the US that is still present


II. World War I

A. Causes
1. Retreat of Ottoman Empire from Balkan region led to instability- creation of new nations (Serbia, Bosnia-Herzegovina, Romania, and Bulgaria) and expansionary interest by Austria-Hungary.
2. Austria-Hungary annexed Bosnia-Herzegovina's in 1908, raising Serb concern.
3. Serbian nationalists wanted to take Bosnia as many Serbs lived there
4. Austro-Hungarian Archduke Franz Ferdinand was assassinated by a Bosnian Serb nationalist in June 1914 while touring the Bosnian capital of Sarajevo.
5. Austia-Hungary declared war on Serbia setting of a chain reaction
6. Linked by secret alliances, Russia, France and Great Britain came in on the side of Serbia (Allies) Germany and Italy (the latter switched sides in 1915) joined Austria Hungary (Central Powers)

B. A Difficult Neutrality
1. Antiwar public sentiment and Wilson’s ideals led to US attempting neutrality
2. Most Americans supported England due to cultural and commercial ties
3. German-Americans and many Irish-Americans were sympathetic to Germany.
4. British interference with trade irritated Americans but German U-Boat response raised widespread fury
5. Sinking of British Liner Lusitania with 128 Americans aboard led Wilson to take a firmer stance with Germany- demanding the end of unrestricted submarine warfare
6. Germans acquiesced at first by not sinking passenger ships
7. Sussex- Germany sank this French liner, injuring Americans in 1916. Germany issued the Sussex Pledge in responses to US ultimatum
8. Meanwhile, American public sentiment against Germany began to rise, stoked by yellow press, TR and other war hawks.
9. Bankers, who had lent the Allies $2.3 Billion (with Wilson’s encouragement) by 1917, wanted US to enter so as to protect their investments
10. Wilson stuck to neutrality in his 1916 reelection campaign by closeness of the election showed there was much public support for entering the Great War

C. The US Steps in
1. Desperate to breach the British naval blockade, Germany volated the Sussexz pledge by declaring unrestricted sub warfare in Jan 1917
2. U boats sing 5 American ships
3. Zimmerman Telegram intercepted by British intelligence- Germany asked mexico to declare war on us and promised support
4. Bolshevik revolution turned Russia into a ‘democracy' allowing Wilson into perceive the war as one of democratic vs monarchic powers.
5. On April 2, Wilson asked congress for a declaration of war to make the world “safe for democracy”

D. Preparing the Army
1. In 1917, us army was 120000 soldiers backed by 89000 national guardsmen
2. Underfunded army suffered from corruption and lack of resources
3. Secretary of war Baker focused on raising an army with Selective Service Act of 1917. It required men 21-30 later 18-45 to register for draft
4. 24 million men registered, 3 million served plus 1.3 million National Guards
5. Seeking to organize more effectively, army began to focus on morality of soldiers, testing and psychological profiling for leaderships positions
6. African Americans followed WEB Dubois’ advice and volunteered in large numbers- 260000 served- serving in segregated units
7. Native Americans as well as recent immigrants also volunteered in large numbers.

WWI video notes

• Sinking of the Lusitania
o Transatlantic ship attacked by U-boat torpedo
o This sank the ship with time only to release 6 lifeboats.
o 128 Americans died
• War began in 1914 when Franz Ferdinand got shot in June
• Nationalism was huge everywhere, most soldiers were volunteers who expected the war to be over by Christmas
• French casualties at the end of the 1st year: 1 million dead
• Tens of thousands of young educated Germans were killed in the first months.
• The US was officially neutral in the conflict- Wilson was reluctant to get involved
• US banks were doing well by loaning money to the Brits and the French who used it to buy American weapons
• Labor shortages drove northern factories to hire blacks who moved north to fill the need for workers.
• Trenches became a huge part of war
• “War of Attrition”
• New Weapons:
o Machine gun
o Tank-invented to get through barbed wire fences
o Gigantic artillery
o Flamethrowers
o Poison Gas
• In Russia, revolution broke out and the Czars were brought down and replaced by a provisional government who tried to continue the war. Lenin was brought home and took over in Russia to create a communist state, withdrawing when he took over.
• Americans entered the war
o Because Germany tried to convince Mexico to invade the US in summer of 1917.
o They were fresh and enthusiastic, but poorly trained and badly armed.

Chapter 21 Notes, part II: Progressive Presidents

A. Theodore Roosevelt

1. From aristocratic Dutch New York family; Harvard educated
2. Developed appreciation for physical activity and the outdoors by spending time in Wyoming as a child. Bought and managed a South Dakota ranch after his first wife’s death (1884-1886)
3. Political career began in 1881, as a NY state assemblyman, appointed in 1889 to President Harrison’s Civil Service Commission, became NYC’s Police Commissioner in 1895.
4. Raised a small army of cowboys and ranch hands known as the Rough Riders and led them in Cuba during the Spanish-American War.
5. Elected NY Governor in 1898, selected as McKinley’s VP in 1900
6. Became President at age 42 after McKinley’s assassination in 1901.
7. Promised Americans a Square Deal- 3 C’s (control of corporations, consumer protection, conservation of national resources)
8. Gained popularity among the masses for his charm and personality as well as support for Progressive ideas
9. Supported legislation to limit and regulate the power of business trusts (enforce the Sherman Antitrust Act of 1900, Hepburn act of 1906 gave the Interstate Commerce Commission power to regulate railroad rates, filed 43 antitrust lawsuits, most famous of which led to the breakup of Standard Oil and the reorganization of the American Tobacco Company in 1911)
10. Following publication of The Jungle, TR supported various consumer protection measures such as the Pure Food and Drug Act and the Meat Inspection Acts (led to establishment of the Food and Drug Administration)
11. As an avid nature preservationist, TR took a more pragmatic conservationist approach to the environment. Established the US Forest Service, supported the Reclamation Act (to irrigate the west), set aside 200 million acres of public land as a national forest, established 63 wildlife reserves, 16 national monuments and 5 new national parks. Close friend of Gifford Pinchot (head of Forest Service) and John Muir (founder of the Sierra Club)
12. Won the Novel Peace Prize in 1906 for Latin American policies ???!!!??!?!
13. Did not run for third term, despite major public support
14. Ran for president in 1912 after four-year hiatus from politics, as nominee for the Progressive (Bull Moose) Party
15. Wrote 26 books, over a thousand magazine articles
16. Died in his sleep in 1919, at age 60


B. William Howard Taft as President (1908-1912)

1. Hand-picked successor to TR
2. Taft’s administration was active in ‘trust-busting”. Prosecuting more antitrust cases than TR’s administration. Supported the Mann-Elkins Act which gave the ICC more powers to regulate not only railroad rates but also telephone and telegraph rates
3. However, his support of tariffs and opening public land to commercial development broke with Progressive Policies and angered TR
4. Eventually became a somewhat pro-business Chief Justice of Supreme Court
5. Election of 1912: TR runs, splits Republicans and lets Wilson win


C. Woodrow Wilson (1913-1920)

1. Raised in a strict Virginia Presbyterian household, first Southern President since Andrew Johnson
2. Graduate of Princeton, U Va school of Law and Johns Hopkins
3. Princeton professor of political economy, president of Princeton from 1902 – 1910
4. Won New Jersey Governorship in 1910, selected as a reform-minded candidate by the democrats to run for President in 1912
5. Defeated Republican Taft, Progressive TR and Socialist Debs to become President
6. “New Freedom” platform included Progressive ideas such as tariff reduction, women’s suffrage, business regulation, abolition of child labor, 8-hour workday, and workmen’s compensation as well as the popular election of Senators.
7. Progressive legislation during his presidency included:

a. Underwood-Simmons Tariff- reduced Tariffs
b. Federal Reserve Act- established central bank with 12 branches, modern federal reserve system
c. Federal Trade Commission Act- created FTC
d. Clayton Antitrust Act- gave workers greater protest rights (right to strike so gov’t can’t stop it with force)
e. Narcotics Act-outlawed cocaine and opium based “medication”
f. Federal Farm Loan Act- provided low interest rate loans to farmers
g. Keating-Owen Act- Banned products made by children from interstate commerce, declared unconstitutional by supreme court
h. Adamson Act-established 8-hour workday for railway workers
i. Workmen’s Compensation Act- compensation for people injured on the job.

8. Amendments during his tenure:

a. 16th Amendment (graduated income tax)
b. 17th Amendment (direct election of Senators)
c. 18th amendment (Prohibition)
d. 19th Amendment (women’s suffrage)

9. Authored the Fourteen Points for the Treaty of Versailles ending WWI, established the League of Nations (predecessor to the UN)
10. Won the Nobel Peace Prize in 1919
11. Overworked and stressed, Wilson suffered a massive stroke in 1919 and was incapacitated for the last 17 months of his presidency
12. Lived the last 3 years of his life in retirement and died in 1924

Chapter 21 Notes

I. Origins of the Progressive Movement


A. Grassroots activists
1. Progressive movement, unlike the Populists, was urban-based.
2. White collar workers (grew from 5.1 million in 1900 to 10.5 million in 1920) formed professional organizations and joined progressive groups
3. Among the white collar workers were women who accounted for over 30% of the white-collar population by 1920.
4. Middle-class housewives who felt isolated also joined progressive organizations
5. Women’s clubs, settlement houses, and urban improvement organizations were forerunners of the movement.
6. Most progressives belonged to the native-born middle class; however working class immigrants provided support and too the lead on issues.

B. Progressive Causes
1. Diverse and sometimes contradictory causes
2. Reformers were not radicals- believed that social problems could be solved through scientific study and organized effort.
3. Many reformers focused on regulating business
4. Others cared about protecting workers and the urban poor
5. Some focused on restructuring government, particularly at state and municipal level
6. A significant proportion concentrated on a variety of social control strategies- limiting immigration, temperance, imposing morality and limiting social disorder

C. Ideological underpinnings
1. Late 19th and early 20th century intellectuals began to question and promote alternatives to social Darwinism
2. Thornstein Veblen- Economist who exposed and satirized the habits of the business elite, coined the term “conspicuous consumption”, argued that workers and engineers were better equipped to lead society
3. William James- Harvard professor who emphasized the importance of action in resolving social problems (brother of Henry James).
4. Herbert Croly- called for “activist government” and for intellectuals to play a larger role, founded magazine The New Republic
5. Jane Addams- settlement house leader, argued that the middle class must unite with the working class to demand better conditions in factories
6. John Dewey- philosopher and educational reformer who promoted equal opportunity and experiential learning
7. Oliver Wendell Holmes- Law professor who became Supreme Court justice, argued that the law must evolve as soviet changes, promoted much reform legislation

D. Industrial Novelists, Journalists and Artists
1. Muckrakers- journalists and authors who focused on exposing social and political problems
2. Frank Norris- wrote The Octopus, exposing corrupt business practices in the railroad industry
3. Theodore Dreiser- wrote The Financier, exposing the dishonesty and lack of social consciousness displayed by the wealthy
4. Upton Sinclair- wrote The Jungle, exposing the disgusting conditions at meat packing plants (led to Roosevelt passing the Pure Food and Drug Act as well as the Meat Inspection Act in 1906)
5. Lincoln Steffens- The Shame of the Cities
6. Jacobs Riis
7. Ida Tarbell-History of the Standard Oil Company
8. David Grahm Phillips- Treason of the Senate
9. Articles published by myriad articles in progressive magazines
10. “Ashcan School” painters focused on portraying the harshness of urban slum
11. Photographers, like Lewis Hinse, focused on factory conditions and child labor

Chapter 20 Notes

I. Politics in the Gilded Age


A. Presidents

1. Generally upheld the status quo and sided with big business. Major political issues included civil service reform and size/backing of money supply
2. 1876- Rutherford Hayes, Republican, known for his sense of decorum and support of temperance. Attempted to impose civil service standards to counter the spoils system. Ended reconstruction by pulling troops out of the south. (Election was a tie due to some vote pulling in the south, so he agreed to pull troops from the south in return for presidency)
3. 1880- James Garfield, Republican, last of the log cabin presidents. Also wanted to impose civil service standards, assinated by a jilted political ally (Charles Guiteau).
4. 1881- Chester Arthur, Republican, Garfield’s VP. Though known as a symbol of patronage and corruption. Arthur helped to push through civil service legislation- the Pendelton Civil Service Act that established standards, set up civil service exams, and forbade candidates from soliciting contributions from government employees
5. 1884- Grover Cleveland, Democrat. Known for fighting political bosses and spoilsmen as Governer of NY, consequently did not have support of NYC’s Tammany Hall. Still, he won with the support of NY’s immigrant population. Became contovercial for attempting to lower tariffs (to cut federal surplus) and cracking down on fraudulent Civil War veteran benefits. Opposed by entrenched business interests and the GAR (Civil War Veterans).
6. 1888- Benjamin Harrison, Republican. Backed by big business campaign contributions, enacted the McKinley Tariff, protected the federal surplus and greatly increased Civil War veteran pension ststem.
7. 1892- Grover Cleveland, (conservative) Democrat. Presided over a major depression in the 1890’s, held to a laissez-faire economics approach, used the help of JP Morgan and Belmont to save the gold standard, opposed the silver standard as proposed by William Jennings Bryan.(who would later be involved in the Scopes trial) Yeilded to high tariff proponents and attempted to push through an income tax proposal (Wilson-Gorman Tariff) which was deemed unconstitutional.
8. 1896- William McKinley, Republican. Managed to beat Democrat/Populist candidate William Jennings Bryan who espoused the silver standard, lower tariffs, and appealed to Western farmers. Morgan and other industrialists funded McKinley’s campaign.


II. Political movements, issues, and policies


A. Grangers and Alliance Movements

1. Grangers were mostly Great Plains farmers who organized to combat big business interests, particularly railroads and banks.
2. Grangers tried to organized cooperatives to keep farmersf from having to borrow money. Farming without borrowing was impossible so the movement failed
3. The Alliance Movement began in the South to protect cotton farmers trapped in the crop-lien system.
4. The National Colored Farmer’s Alliance came up at the same time to accommodate black cotton farmers.
5. The Northwestern was set up as a response to a major drought in Kansas.
6. The Northwestern and Southern Alliances created a political platform: tariff reduction, graduated income tax, public ownership of railroads, federal funding for irrigation projects, ban on “alien” landownership and free and unlimited silver coinage.
7. Alliance movements grew up quickly and boasted over 4 million members by 1890. By 1892, the alliance set up a third party: the Populists.

B. Currency and other Acts

1. Sherman Silver Purchase Act (1890)- to provide for silver coinage, repealed under Cleveland administration 1894 (when he had to ask Morgan for a loan)
2. Currency Act (1900)- passed under McKinley, commitied US to gold standard
3. Interstate Commerce Act (1887)- reaffirmed federal government’s power to regulate interstate commerce
4. Pendleton Civil Service Act (1883)- set up civil service requirements and standards
5. Willson-Gorman Tariff (1894)- imposed 2% income tax, unconstitutional
6. Dingley Tariff (1897)- Increased tariffs to an all-time highs

C. Court Decisions
1. Munn Vs Illinois (1877)- Upheld an Illinois law setting a maximum rate for railroad transportation of grain
2. Plessy vs. Ferguson (1896)- established separate but equal doctrine,
III. Depression 1893-97
A. Panic of 1893
1. Caused by overspecutation in railroad stocks
2. Railroad growth rates slowed due to agricultural stagnation
3. A London investment bank collapsed prompting it to sell American stocks and then convert dollars into gold
4. Gold reserbe dropped sharply causing confidence crisis
5. Sherman Silver Act produced in the US. Silver producers often demanded payment in gold
6. Veterans benefits and Pork Barrel projects during Harrison’s presidency lowered government reserves
7. Crisis of confidence led to collapsing stock prices and a run on gold
8. By late 1893, 74 railroad companies and 15,000 businesses had failed

B. Depression

1. Industrial unemployment of 20-25%
2. 1/3 of railroad mileage in bankruptcy
3. Farm prices dropped by 20% between 1890-96
4. Commodity prices plummeted
5. High unemployment and decreasing wages led to protests such as the Pullman strike and Coxey’s Army March
6. Morgan and Belmont bailed out the American government by perchasing $62 million in bonds (at reduced prices)
7. Debate about increasing the money supply reached a crescendo-silver advocates took over the Democratic and Populist parties
8. Setting the stage fpr the Progressive Movement, widespread poverty led reformers to look into the causes of poverty rather than simply blaming the poor for their condition.
9. The depression also set the stage for war and imperialist expansion... dun dun dun.

I. Immigrants and the New American City

A. Immigration facts and figures

1. 11 million immigrants entered the US between 1870-1900. During that time period, US Population exploded from 40 million to 79 million.
2. Between 1860-1890, most immigrants were from northern Europe. Of the 10 million that arrived, 3 million were German, 2 million from Great Britain and 1.5 million were Irish. 800,000 French Canadians also moved to New England and nearly one million Scandinavians moved to the upper Midwest. 81 thousand Chinese were present on the West coast.
3. Beginning in the 1890’s, most immigrants were from Southern and Eastern Europe. These new immigrants were mostly Italian, Slaves, Greeks, and Eastern European Jews.
4. In 1890, 4 out of 5 New Yorkers were either foreign born or second-generation immigrants!
5. Push factors for immigrants included overpopulation, crop failure, famine, religious persecution, violence, and industrial depression in their home countries.
6. Pull factors included more job opportunities, personal freedoms as well as abundant and cheaper land
7. Wealthier immigrants from Germany and Scandinavia tended to settler further west, where land was cheaper. Poorer immigrants from Italy and Ireland tended to remain in East Coast cities. Few Immigrants settled in the South.
8. Immigrants tended to cluster not only among people of their country, but more specifically people of their region.
9. Most immigrants were single young men, although single Irish women also came. Immigrants tended to establish themselves in the US until they could afford to bring families.
10. Grueling ocean trips caused immigrants to frequently arrive ill. Immigrants were checked for disease and disabilities. Immigrants with serious infections were returned, some were quarantined upon entry.
11. Major ports of entry were Ellis Island in NY and Angel Island in San Francisco
12. Many immigrants had their names Anglicized upon admittance to the US
13. Large immigrant groups like the German and Irish quickly acquired political clout in cities where they represented a substantial pert of the population. These groups tended to exclude other newcomers from desirable jobs
14. Northern Europeans were unlikely to face racial discrimination. Southern and Eastern Europeans, however were viewed and treated as non-white

B. Urban Life

1. Between 1860 – 1900, American cities grew tremendously. The percentage of urban population increased from 20% to 40%
2. By 1890, Philly, NY, and Chicago had over 1 million residents and West Coast cities like San Francisco, Seattle and LA grew exponentially
3. New residents included not only immigrants but also Americans migrating away from rural areas in search of better wages and more job opportunities
4. A leading group of American migrants were young farm women, particularly in the Northeast
5. Class distinctions were quite apparent in cities. Most immigrants lived in squalid tenement row houses closer to the center while wealthier inhabitants tended to live in large houses on the outskirts. Fashionable suburbs began during this period.
6. Immigrants and minorities tended to live in clustered neighborhoods. While this was mostly by choice, some immigrant groups and minorities were purposefully segregated into ghettos. These tended to be noisy and dirty
7. As transportation systems improved (trolleys and trains) cities began to sprawl and develop more suburbs
8. Spatial separation along with divergent living conditions for rich and poor led to greater ethnic racial cultural and class divisions

Chapter 18 Notes, part II

I. The Industrial Workforce


A. The factory system
1. Assembly line method of production was adopted in most industries making work tedious and repetitive.
2. Simple work could be done by lower-paid unskilled workers- increased use of women, children, and immigrants
3. More rigorous schedules, working conditions and focus on efficiency

B. Plight of the factory worker
1. Use of unskilled and child workers led to frequent accidents
2. Workers who were injured received few if any benefits
3. Very long hours, often 12 hours a day 7 days per week
4. Low wages $1.30/ day for unskilled male workers ($.84 in South) women as little as $5 for a 70-hr week
5. Instability- could be laid off whenever demand for factory’s products declined.
6. Illnesses- Black and Brown lung diseases, TB


II. Workers Strike Back


A. National Labor Union
1. Formed in 1866 by William Sylvis
2. Advocated 8 hour workday, higher wagers and limits on immigration
3. Welcomed women but believed in racially segregated unions
4. Has as many as 300,000 members but disintegrated soon after Sylvis’ death in 1869

B. Knights of Labor
1. Founded in 1869 by a group of Philadelphia tailors but grew explosively after Terence Powderly became its leader in 1880
2. Under Powderly, the union welcomed unskilled workers, blacks and women (no Chinese)
3. Though Powderly opposed strikes, the Knights gained prominence after the successful Wabash strike against Jay Gould’s railroad in 1885
4. Opposition to Chinese immigration which culminated in the Chinese Exclusion Act (1882)
5. Advanced socialist ideals-worker ownership of companies
6. Began to decline after failed strikes as well as the Haymarket Riot in 1886

C. American Federation of Labor
1. Led by Samuel Gompers starting in 1886
2. Accepted only skilled laborers and excluded blacks and women
3. More pragmatic than the Knights, they fought to improve factory conditions, higher wages and the 8 hour workday
4. Grew to 1.6 million members by1904, still exists as the AFL-CIO. Largest labor union in the US

D. Strikes and Labor Violence
1. 37,000 strikes between 1881- 1905 involving 7 million workers
2. Railroad Strike of 1887- first instance of government using troops to end a strike
3. Fearing unions, management began to demand “yellow dog” contracts (prevent and hire Pinkerton agents and other private security
4. May Day Strike of 1886- 340,000 workers walked off jobs in support of 8 hour workday
5. Haymarket square (1886)- confrontation between McCormick Harvester workers and police ends in casualties. Workers widely blamed by media
6. Coeur d’Alene (1892)- in response to wage cut, miners blew up mill and captured guards, Idaho Natal guard ended the strike, breaking up the union
7. Homestead Strike (1892)- Managers lowered wages and locked out union workers at a Carnegie Steel Mill. Workers fought with Pinkerton agents leading to casualties. Nat’l guard ended strike, breaking up the union
8. Pullman Strike (1894)- Railroad workers led by Eugene Debs paralyzed major railroads by refusing to switch Pullman cars. Workers refused a court order to return to work. Debs was arrested and federal troops sent in; a riot broke out in which 13 people died and 700 railroad cars were burned.
9. Manipulating the media, corporate leaders used strike violence as an example of anarchy and mobocracy to discredit unions
10. Union’s negative public image allowed government to generally side with corporations

Big Business and Trusts: Creating New Forms of Corporate Organization

--Entrepreneurs in oil, salt, sugar, tobacco, and meatpacking industries rushed to copy Carnegie's method of lowering costs to drive rivals out of the market
--Edwin L. Drake drilled the first successful oil well in 1859
--Petroleum (crude oil) was refined into Kerosene and used in lamps, replacing animal fat
--John D. Rockefeller (from Cleveland) opened his first refinery in 1863, using Carnegie's cost-cutting techniques, realizing that small changes could save thousands of dollars. He worked toward vertical integration of his firm and forced out competitors. Bye 1879 he controlled 90% of the country's oil businesses.
--Strong as he was, Rockefeller about competition and set up the Standard Oil Trust, which created an umbrella corporation that ran all the oil companies and consolidated them, controlling them horizontally as well as vertically.
--Rockefeller’s trust was copied by many other industries, but legislatures decided they were corrupt, stamping out all competition and making monopolies. The government prosecuted 18 trusts and put those in charge in jail, but the Sherman Act of 1895 was sympathetic to big business and failed to stamp all of them out, so by 1900, these huge firms accounted for 2/5 of the nation’s manufacturing sector.

(my notes on oil and trusts- somewhat incomplete)

Chapter 18

I. The Rise of Industrial America

A. Prominent industrialists and The Alger Hiss Myth

1. John Pierpont Morgan (1837-1813) Began in banking perfected the trust system and holding company corporate structure. His trusts eventually dominated the railroad, electric, steel and agricultural equipment business.
2. Andrew Carnegie (1835-1919)- Scottish immigrant who started his career in railroads. Created the country’s most successful, vertically integrated (where the boss controls every piece of the production- stores, raw materials, etc) steel business (Carnegie Steel), first to use the Bessemer process to produce steel rapidly. Sold his steel business to JP Morgan for nearly $500 million in 1901. Recognized as the US’s foremost philanthropist (giving away $350 million during his lifetime), wrote The Gospel of Wealth, established 2500 free lending libraries and several educational institutions
3. John D Rockefeller (1839- 1937)- Cleveland merchant, son of a snake oil salesman. Entered the oil business soon after oil was first discovered in Pennsylvania. Established the Standard Oil Company, which monopolized the oil industry until its breakup. Credited for originating the trust and holding company corporate structure. Also involved in philanthropy, was worth $5 billion at the time of his death.
4.Gould, Hull, Huntington and Vanderbilt- led the consolidation of the railroad industry in the 1870’s and 1880’s. Standardized railroad equipment, interconnected railroads and fought federal regulation. However, when the industry fell on hard times, it was largely taken over by JP Morgan.
5. Thomas Edison (1847-1931)- Prolific American inventor. First major invention was the stock quote machine. Used capital from the first invention to establish his Menlo Park research facility (NJ). Invention included the phonograph, reliable filament for the light bulb; first full scale standardized electrical system (together with Morgan established GE), mimeograph machine, microphone, motion picture camera and film, and storage battery. Patented 1,093 inventions by 1931!
6. Alexander Graham Bell (1847-1922) Scottish immigrant who invented the telephone in 1876. Responsible for establishing national and international telephone systems

B. Industrial Change in the late 1800s
1. Between 1850-1900, US industrial output increased 5fold. By 1900, the US accounted for 35% of the world’s manufactured goods
2. Factors in US industrial development
a. Development and exploration of new energy sources (coal then oil)
b. Technological innovation
c. Large and exploitable workforce
d. Intense competition led to the creation of large vertically integrated corporations
e. Low prices due to increased productivity led to increased demand
3. Consequences of rapid industrial development
a. Huge increase of consumer goods
b. Labor saving technologies
c. Explosion in urban growth
d. Increased social inequality
e. Widespread suffering among the working class
f. Industrial pollution of air and water

C. Major US Industries
1. Railroads
a. By 1900, the us had 193,000 miles of railroad track
b.Railroad development was subsidized by the government during the Civil War and ongoing though huge land grants in the West
c. Capital intensive nature of the business led railroads to raise money through stock and bond offerings
d. Due to their scale and geographic span, railroads developed innovative management, accounting, recordkeeping and communication techniques.
e. Railroads began to standardize equipment as the industry began to consolidate in the 1870s and 1880s
f. By the 1890s, fierce competition and indebtedness made the railroads vulnerable to take over.
g. The governments also attempted to combat rated differentiation and other monopolistic practices throughout the interstate commerce act of 1887. Railroads successfully fought government regulation in the courts.

2. Steel
a. Carnegie set his sights on the steel industry
b. In the 1970’s he started his own steel mill using the Bessemer process
c. Carnegie’s goal was to make a vertically integrated steel manufacturer that would control costs
d. Carnegie Steel became the world’s largest industrial concern by 1900
e.Industry was consolidated by JP Morgan who brought Carnegie steel and joined it with others to make the first billion dollar business: US steel in 1901

Chapter 16 Study Guide

Download it here.

Chapter 17 Notes, continued

Chapter 17, continued Notes

I. Cashing in the Western Frontier


A. The Mining frenzy
1. Beaked between the discovery of gold in California (1849) and the Canadian Klondike strike in 1896 which led to the settlement of Alaska
2. Other major gold and silver discoveries initiated the settlement of Nevada, Colorado, Idaho, Montana, Wyoming, and South Dakota
3. Towns would grow quickly then decline or be completely abandoned once the precious metal was exhausted
4. Mining towns tended to be ethnically diverse; however, men greatly outnumbered women
5. When there was still some “placer gold”, individual prospectors had a chance but, as this ran out, only large mining companies had the resources to build deep mines
6. Miners were paid reasonably well but the work was dangerous
7. Mining operations polluted rivers with excess dirt, mercury, arsenic and cyanide,
8. Millions of ounces of precious metal fueled the American economy and financed accelerated industrialization

B. Cowboy Reality and Legend
1. Driving cheap cattle from Texas to rail depots in Dodge City and Abilene, Kansas, became extremely lucrative in the late 1860s
2. These drives required many cowboys so cattle ranchers began to recruit using the media to glamorize the cowboy lifestyle
3. 35000-55000 poor young men were thus lured into a generally underpaid, boring, dirty and occasionally violent job
4. 1/5 of cowboys were Mexican or African-American
5. A few achieved fame and notoriety (Billy the Kid, Deadwood Dick, Wild Bill Hickcock, etc) giving rise to the cowboy hero of the dime novels (and eventually movies)
6. As more farmers moved in, disputes began to occur culminating in the range wars (farmers vs. cattle’s) Farmers emerged as more powerful politically because they were tied to the land and could vote.
7. The cattle bonanza ended in 1885 when 90% of cattle died as a result of an abnormally cold winter, coupled with a summer drought and an outbreak of Texas Fever (new railroad links also made cattle drives obsolete)

C. Bonanza Farms
1. During the Panic of 1873, many railroads sold off Western land
2. This land was often purchased in huge parcels by investors and converted it into vast bonanza farms
3. Wheat production skyrocketed in the northern plains while in California, there were major fruit operations which at first hurt small farmers and even the bonanza farms by the 1890’s
4. Fruit production, in turn, became more viable with the introduction of the refrigerated train car in 1900

D. Oklahoma: the final American frontier
1. With so much western land controlled but the railroads, cattle ranchers, bonanza farmers and speculators, homesteaders pressured the government to open federal land in Oklahoma to white settlement.
2. Reneging on agreements with the 5 Civilized Tribes, the government opened 2 million acres in central Oklahoma for settlement on a “first come first served” basis
3. On April 22, 1889, thousands of eager homesteaders rushed in to claim the land (some cheated and got there before- nicknamed “Sooners”)
4. This action together with the Dawes Act caused the 5 Civilized Tribes to lose control of their land
5. Poor land management and over-farming led to Oklahoma being the center of the dust bowl in the 1930’s (leading Mandy okes to move again)

Group presentation notes

• Railroads
o Brought new settlers to the plains: Irish, Russians, Germans, Chinese
o Helped in the war against the Indians
o Railroads became the largest landowners in the US
o Laid the bedrock for women’s suffrage

• Farming
o Dry Farming
• Farmers plow deep to keep moisture on plants
o New Tools
• Steel plow- allowed the farmers to plow the hard soil
• Windmills
• Barbed wire: keep cattle in and intruders out
• Mechanical Reaper
o Main Crops: wheat and corn
o Ranchers vs. Farmers
• Ranchers resented encroachment of farmers
• Ranchers “Cattle Kings” cut barbed wire fences so cattle could get in, would buy up land
• Farmers got laws passed that restricted mobility of Ranchers
o Weather conditions
• Very dry, required new plows or irrigation
• Often diverted streams or tapped wells
• Dry spell in the 1870’s- five year drought, many farmers left the region or went bankrupt
o The Great Plains
• 19 million bushels of wheat were produced in the Great Plains
• After climate shift, though, production dropped
• The type of farming was completely unsustainable

• Homesteading
• New Immigrants to the Great Plains
• Homesteading act: for $10, land out west
• 400,000 families took up on the act
• Much of the acreage actually went to railroads and state governments
• Transience vs. sticking it our
• Most of the people who stayed were Germans, because they tended to stick with communities
• Settlers vs. Speculators
• Settlers were mostly immigrants who bought land out west
• 160 acres was rarely enough
• Speculators worked for companies, buying up land and reselling it
• They abused the Homestead act by buying it

• Settlers
• Many poor people moved out there
• Bought desert land for cheaper
• Timber and Stone Act let Settlers buy more land
o How did the Homestead act affect the US
• Promoted people moving to the empty plains
• Bettered economy
• Most land went to speculators and railroads
o Becoming States
• Enabling act- let congress set up boundaries
• Writing state constitution, applying for admission
o Women in the Great Plains
• Short lives
• Few opportunities
• Lived along, often
• Had to work on the farms like the men
• Once they had stayed for a few years, they would decorate houses
o Cooperation
• More explorers
• Wagon trains- traveling together for safety and comfort
• Sometimes things went wrong, though- the Donner Party
• Once they had reached their land, they made provisional governments
o Refining Frontier Life
• Opera houses
• Schools
• Hotels
• Were viewed as provincial and backwards
• Masonic Lodges and other organizations
• Libraries


• The Southwest
o Architecture
• Spanish influence
• Adobe style= cool interior
• Often red-and-white
• Mexican and Spanish Revival movement
o Land
• Americans often kicked out Spanish speakers- forced to move to Barrios
• In NM & AZ, though, the Spanish were wealthier and held onto their land
o Mexicans in New Mexico
• Treaty of Guadalupe-Hidalgo ended war, but some Mexicans remained, so Grant annexed them
• Often, though, whites grabbed Mexican land
o California & Texas
• Californians were brought by gold rush, mixed with Mexicans
• But the Mexicans mostly formed their own communities
• Many worked in gold mines or for Railroad
• In Texas, there was some cooperation

Chapter 17 Notes

I. Native Americans Beyond the Mississippi

A. Native Americans of the great plains
1. Northern plains- war among the tribes there was common (Lakota Sioux, others)
2. Middle Plains (OK area)- 5 civilized tribes, relocated during Jackson’s presidency
3. Southern Plains- Kiowas, Comanches, Arapahos, Apaches

B. Lifestyles
1. Some agricultural practices
2. Mostly nomadic and followed buffalo
3. Guns and horses in widespread use by mid 1800s
4. Extended family ties and tribal cooperation
5. Lakota religion
a. Emphasizes importance of the community- view community in a series of circles: Family-band-tribe-Sioux Nation
b. Hierarchy of plant and animal spirits whose help could be invoked by the Sun Dance
c. Self-torture to gain spiritual power and strengthen the community
6. Buffalo Culture
a. Northern or High Plains Indians could not practice agriculture due to lack of rainfall
b. Developed nomadic lifestyles that followed the patterns of buffalo migration
c. Supplied everything necessary for living
d. Until the 1850’s numbered as many as 30 million, but were reduced to a few thousand by 1880

C. Reservations and the End of Nomadic life

1. Reduction of buffalo herds created most obvious pressure
2. As whites moved in and gold was discovered in the Rockies, the government (pressured by settlers, developers and the railroads) moved toward a system of tribal reservations
3. Some Native groups who were already agricultural did not resist. More nomadic groups attempted to resist
4. Sand Creek Massacre (1864)- Following Cheyenne and Arapahoe raids on travelers, the Governor of Colorado had issued an order to kill all hostile Indians on site. A peaceful band of Arapahoe Indians near a US Army Fort was slaughtered by a Colorado militia group led by Methodist Minister Chivington
5. Medicine Lodge Treaty of 1867- group of Kiowas, Comanches, Cheyannes, and Arapahoes agree to live on land grant in Oklahoma
6. Fort Laramie Treaty of 1868- some Sioux agree to move to a reservation in western South Dakota
7. Many tribal leaders were dissatisfied with the treaties and opposed to the idea of reservation confinement. They continued to roam the Plains and occasionally raided white settlements
8. US Army units were dispatched to force roving Indians into reservations. George Custer was the most infamous commander in this effort
9. When gold was rumored to exist in South Dakota, Custer was dispatched to confirm its existence and pressure the Sioux to sell this land. The Sioux asked for too high a price so Grant decided to force them off
10. Custer’s Last Stand (Little Bighorn, Montana, 1876)- overconfident Custer attempted a frontal attack on a huge group of Cheyenne and Sioux warriors led by Chief Sitting Bull. Custer and his Seventh Cavalry were destroyed
11. Ft Robinson Massacre (Nebraska 1879)- US army captured 150 Cheyenne who were trying to return to the Dakotas, led by Chief Dull Knife, they escaped but were overrun and slaughtered by the army

D. Reform in Native American Relations
1. Well-meaning reformers, most notably Helen Hunt Jackson, were appalled by the wanton killing of Native Americans
2. They espoused integration of Indians into mainstream society- opposed nomadic lifestyle and reservations
3. DAWES ACT- (1887) culmination of integration movement
a. Emphasized that Indians would be regarded as individuals from a legal standpoint
b. Each head of an Indian family would receive 160 Acres of former reservation land for farming (320 for cattle); land held in trust for first 25 years to prevent sale
c. Indians who accepted land would be declared citizens
d. Reservation land decreased by 65% from 1887 to 1934- most redistributed land was eventually sold to white settlers or too arid to farm

E. The End of Indian Resistance
1. Ghost Dance Movement- originated with prophet Wovoka and spread quickly among Sioux in the Dakotas. Members performed a Ghost Dance, wearing a Ghost Shirt, which they believed protected them from harm (even bullets)
2. To stop the movement’s spread, Major McLaughlin ordered the arrest of Chief Sitting Bull. The Chief and some Indians as well as some soldiers were killed.
3. Wounded Knee Massacre (s. Dakota 1890)- The army rounded up 340 Sioux. When one Indian shot his rifle, the army opened fire with cannons, killing 300 Indians in minutes. This is the last major confrontation between the US Army and Native Americans.

Hey everyone

So it looks like word gets around quick...

The only thing is, I'm not sure how kosher this is, but we'll have to see how it goes, ok? Just keep it relatively quiet with respect to teachers, etc.

Hopefully, I should be adding completed chapter guides soon, but we'll see how that works out. Good luck, and happy studying!

-A

P.S. Be sure to check out the links section over there ----------------->
As well as the demon that is infinite campus and the reccomended quizzes from the textbook, there are lots of helpful study guides and other things there. The 1603 Things to Know is pretty cool: one year of APUS condensed into a webpage.

Reconstruction, Part II

The Crop-Lien System

• A way for creditors to bridge the gap between urban merchants and rural planters
• Offered supplies, credit, etc to planters using next years crop as collateral
• Debts skyrocket, loans up to 50% of crop’s value
• Kept southern blacks locked in cycle of poverty and debt

Election of 1868

• Johnson was politically dead as a result of impeachment trials
• Republicans nominate war hero US Grant
• Democrats feebly nominate Horatio Seymour
• Grant wins in landslide
• Next 2 terms tainted by cronyism, corruption and major recession

Grantism

• A naïve politician
• Cabinet employees made up of friends and heads of business
• Scandals:
o Credit Mobilier
o Whisky ring
o Bribery
o Fraud
o Boss Tweed’s Tammany Hall
• Some foreign success:
o Purchase of Alaska
o Settled Alabama Affair
• New splinter group, Liberal Republican Party forms and tries to take election in 1882

(Thomas Nast, famous cartoonist)

Liberal Republicans

• Supported free trade, laissez faire economy and reform of the civil service
• Believed that government corrupment was more important than southern black enfranchisement
• Nominate Horace Greeley (also supported by the Democrats
• Republicans renominate Grant, who wins

Panic of 1873

• Causes
o Rapid postwar industrialization
• Too much building too fast with not enough currency and specie to finance it
o Overspeculation
• Overbuying led to inflation of Railroad and public business stocks
• Led to collapse of the stockmarket, rr companies, national bank, and a decrease in property values
• Greenbacks taken out of circulation because they were not backed by specie
o And furthermore, those who lent the government money during the war (war bonds) were now being repaid in specie.
• Public Credit Act- Government repayment of bonds to the public
• Specie Resumption Act- back on the gold standard
o Both help restore confidence, but many Democrats want a switch to silver standard to have more abundant money supply
• Bland-Allison Act- Coinage based on silver
o Begins the split between the greenbacks and the silverbacks which will resurface in the 1890’s

Reconstruction and the Suprime Court

• Ex Parte Milligan (1866)-civil courts not military courts tried those guilty of crimes against freedmen as long as they were in the district of that court
• Texas Vs White (1869)- is reconstruction and the readmission of southern states even constitutional, since Union never dissolved in first place
• Slaughterhous cases (1873)- 14th amendment weakened on grounds that states have the right to impose limits not only on corporations but also on individuals within their jurisdictions
• Repeal of Civil rights act (1875) KKK Act (1871) and Enforcement act (1870)
• Supreme court felt Congress had overstepped it’s power.

Decline of the Republicans

• People tired of lack of progress in the south
• Radical Republicans died off
• More republicans believed blacks were inferior to whites
• Democrats fight back, winning previously Republican Southern states by 1876
o In south, they hold only SC, LA and FL

Decline of the Republicans

• Planter Aristocracy tries to kick republicans out of south
• The White League (1874) indimidated black voters
• Democrats use political system to further entrench blacks into sharecropping/ crop-lien system
o Some blacks flee north

Election of Hayes ends reconstruction- didn’t really win election but won by promising to remove troops from south

Reconstruction

Putting the pieces back together
How doe we readmit the South?
-Amnesty? Punishment? A combination of both?

The death of Lincoln and the rise of dissention and confusion

The Freedman Issue
-The 14th, 15,th, 16th Amendments and trying to make this work in the South

The Rise of the Ku Klux Klan and other impediments to the progress of free blacks

Reconstruction abandoned
-Finally realizing that this wouldn’t work yet…

Remember
Impacts of the war on the North
- 360,000 dead
- Economic modernization (keep this in mind…)
- Stronger banking system
- Government power asserted
Impacts of the war on the South
- 260,000 dead
- 60% of wealth lost
- Loss of livelihood (slaves, plantations, etc.)
New concept to Americans: winning a war but terrified of how the victory will play out…

Reconstruction Scenarios
Lincoln’s Initial Southern readmission plan called for a policy of amnesty
- 1863: 10% of southern voters have to pledge allegiance to the Union
- Confederate leaders have to apply for a presidential pardon

Soon to be President Andrew Johnson favors a more militant approach

Radical Republicans (the minority) favor black suffrage

Wade-Davis Bill: each Southern state ruled by a military governor with 50% of voters pledging allegiance to te Union
- Pocket vetoed by Lincoln

Johnson’s Plan
Tennessean Andrew Johnson favors a more millitant plan

Wants to abolish the planter aristocracy of the South

Proposes that all Southerners proclaim allegiance and all of their property would be restored
- States have to proclaim secession illegal ind ratify the 13th Amendment
- Also disqualifies rich whites from this process much like Lincoln disqualified Southern leaders

Hands out 13,000 presidential pardons to the rich and leaders

End 1865: 7 states now restored
- But black suffrage remained untouched

“Black Codes”
Under the 13th Amendment, freedmen guaranteed civil rights, but black codes restricted certain behavior
- Segregation, interracial marriage, court testimonies

Freedmen’s Bureau established to ensure fair entry of freedmen into Southern society

Congressional convention in 1865 refuses to seat ex –Confederate representatives

Thus, Joint Committee on Reconstruction established to oversee this process more efficiently…

Congress vs. Johnson
Radical and Conservative Republicans, Northern Democrats quickly turn their backs on Johnson

Johnson vetoes renewal of the Freedman’s Bureau (which would invalidate the black codes and assist in freedman success but is overidden by Congress)

Also vetoes the Civil Rights Act of 1866 (overridden by Congress)
- Asserts that bills are invalid because ex-Confederates couldn’t vote!

United Republicans move onto the next step: a constitutional amendment that prevents the Supreme Court from invalidating the Civil Rights Act

The 14th Amendment

All people born in the US are citizens- regardless of skin color
- nullifies Dred Scott decision

Also, disqualifies ex- Confederate leaders from pardons, except by a 2/3 vote of Congress

Johnson sets out on his “swing around the circle” to gain popular support

Republicans now firmly in charge of Reconstruction “business”

Reconstruction Act of 1867
Ex Confederate States (besides TN) divided into 5 military districts (temporarily…)

All states must elect a delegation to write a new state constitutions that includes black suffrage

After Congressional approval of constitution, state may be readmitted

Johnson thwarts bill (as best as he can…) by replacing “radical” Union generals with more conservative ones…
-Tenure of Office Act passed to limit this action…