I. The Nixon Presidency
A. A Narrow Victory (1968)
1. With LBJ out, Robert Kennedy’s assassination after winning the CA primary, and Eugene McCarthy’s “Radical agenda”, the Democrats nominated the more conservative Hubert Humphrey (LBJ’s VP)
2. Third party candidate George Wallace gathered support with a pro-segregation, white supremacist platform,
3. Despite having lost the presidential election in 1960 and CA gubernatorial election of 1962, Nixon managed to get the Republican nomination.
4. Criticizing civil unrest “radicals” school integration and promising an end to Vietnam, Nixon gathered support from working class “forgotten Americans”
5. With Wallace getting 14% and Humphrey 38%, Nixon won by a narrow margin. The Senate and House remained Democrat.
B. Nixon’s Foreign Policy
1. Kissinger was selected as Secretary of State; advocated “realpolitik” (do what’s best, don’t stand for values)
2. Vietnam- while wanting to pull out, Nixon’s propriety was “peace with honor”; Nixon escalated attacks on North Vietnam, Cambodia and Laos to force North Vietnam to negotiations. After heavy bombing of North Vietnamese cities, the Paris Accords of 1973, officially ending hostilities between the US and North Vietnam.
3. Détente- Nixon’s Policy of reducing tensions with the communist powers.
4. Seizing upon the growing rift between China and the USSR, Nixon finally recognized the People’s Republic of China and flew there to meet with Mao Zedong in 1972 thus reestablishing political and economic relations.
5. Later the same year, Nixon went to the Soviet Union and brokered the SALT I (Strategic Arms Limitation Treaty) imposing limits on AMB (Anti-ballistic missile) systems and freezing nuclear weapons production for 5 years.
6. Kissinger eventually achieved an end to the oil embargo and a ceasefire between Israel and the Arab coalition of Egypt, Syria and Jordan in 1975.
7. In less developed countries, Nixon supported non-communist but repressive government (Philippines, Argentina, Brazil, Nigeria, S. Korea and the Portuguese in Angola) and funded a coup to oust democratically elected (but Marxist) Salvador Allende in Chile.
8. Nixon Doctrine- avoiding military interaction, but instead financially supporting non-communists.
C. Domestic policy
1. Approved much liberal legislation including wage and price controls, affirmative action, nationwide voting wage of 18, environmental and endangered species protection, established the EPA and OSHA.
2. Faced with Stagflation (Stagnation and Inflation) and the oil embargo, Nixon devalued the dollar and increased deficit spending but the economy remained stagnant until the 80s
3. Promooted a tough stance toward “radicals” through government harassment (IRS, FBI, CIA) and eventually, more covert and sometimes illegal means (Liddy and Hunt;s “plumbers”
4. Won vital support in the South, stalling integration by stopping court mandated busing.
5. Nominated 4 Supreme Court justices who were more conservative (but still somewhat liberal to get Senate approval)
D. Nixon’s Fall From Grace
1. To ensure reelection in 1972, Nixon created the Committee to Reelect the President (CREEP) to play “dirty tricks” on the Democrats.
2. Led by Liddy and Hunt (the “plumbers”) CREEP engaged in creating discord and spying on Democrats.
3. A CREEP agent was arrested in a botched break-in of the Democratic National Committee headquarters in the Watergate building in june 1972. Nixon was not immediately implicated and won the AElection of 1972 in a landslide.
4. In 1973, the Senate and House began to investigate CREEP’s illegal activities.
5. Later that year, VP Agnew resigned due to income tax evasion.
6. In 1974, the House Judiciary Committee subpoenaed and gained access to recordings from Nixon’s Oval Office wiretaps.
7. With evidence from the tapes, the House initiated impeachment proceedings on three counts: obstruction of justice for impeding Watergate Investigation, abuse of power for partisan use of FBI and IRS, and contempt of Congress.
8. On August 9, 1974, Nixon resigned and his newly appointed VP Ford became President, pardoning Nixon.
Sunday, May 4, 2008
Wednesday, April 30, 2008
Chapter 29 Notes: Major events of Vietnam
I. Vietnam -- major events and chronology of US involvement
- 1950 -- US begins to provide financial assistance to French.
- 1954 -- Geneva accord divides Vietnam; Diem comes to power with US backing.
- 1955 -- French pullout; US military advisers begin training South Vietnamese.
- 1960 -- Vietcong (North Vietnamese-backed insurgency group in South Vietnam) created.
- 1961 -- Laos is lost; JFK intensifies US involvement.
- 1963 -- Buddhist monk protests; Diem overthrown and killed by CIA-backed coup; 16,000 US military advisors in S. Vietnam.
- 1964 -- Gulf of Tonkin Resolution allows LBJ to escalate military actions without congressional approval; US bombing of N. Vietnam begins.
- 1965 -- US combat troops land in Danang; 184,000 American troops on the ground by year's end.
- 1966 -- 385,000 US troops; B52 bombing of north begins.
- 1967 -- Beginning of anti-war demonstrations; Senate hearings on Vietnam begin; 485,600 troops.
- 1968 -- Tet Offensive -- Vietcong (with North Vietnamese army) attack major South Vietnamese cities, US forces repel the attack, killing 37,000 enemy troops in one month; My Lai Massacre -- US troops kill, rape and torture 500 villagers, army initially covers it up; LBJ announces that he won't run; peace talks with North Vietnam begin in Paris; 536,000 troops.
- 1969 -- bombing of Cambodia begins; US begins to withdraw troops; anti-war protests intensify; Ho Chi Minh dies; 475,000 troops at year's end.
- 1970 -- US and S. Vietnam invade Cambodia; Kent State killings, student protests close 400 universities; Congress repeals Gulf of Tonkin Resolution and limits US role in Cambodia; 334,600 US troops.
- 1971 -- Invasion of Laos (Ho Chi Minh trail); 400,000 person anti-war protest in D.C.
- 1972 -- N. Vietnam launches ground offensive (Easter Offensive); US bombing or North escalates; US ground troops leave Vietnam; Secretary of State Kissinger orchestrates peace treaty that South Vietnam rejects; 24,200 US troops.
- 1973 -- Paris Peace Treaty signed between US, North and South Vietnam and the Vietcong; US draft ends; beginning of US POW release, US ends all bombing; less than 250 US troops in Vietnam.
- 1974 -- New war between North and South Vietnam.
- 1975 -- South Vietnam surrenders to N. Vietnam; Khmer Rouge comes to power in Cambodia (kills 40% of population); leftist regime comes to power in Laos; President Ford's request for aid to S. Vietnam rejected by Congress.
- US death toll -- 58,000; over 300,000 wounded; 500,000 dishonorably discharged out of 2.5 million who served; rampat drug use -- 2 out of 3 smoked marijuana, 1 out of 3 used heroin; cost of US involvement: $150 billion.
- Vietnamese death toll -- over 2 million!
Tuesday, April 22, 2008
Notes for April 22 (Chapter 28 end, Chapter 29 beginning)
Since a good chunk of kids-- including the Operation APUSH chief herself-- were missing today, here are the last half of the Chapter 28 notes and the start of Chapter 29. This is all we have for the week.
Chapter 28
II. Civil Rights and Protest in the Turbulet 60's
A. African American Civil Rights
- Freedom rides organized by CORE in the summer of 1961.
- Sit-ins at lunch counter around the south.
- 63 -- Birmingham protests led by MLK turn violent as police attacks mercilessly; prompts JFK to propose Civil Rights Act.
- 1963 March on Washington -- 250k people present, LK delivers "I have a Dream Speech".
- 1963 -- Medgar Evers, head of NAACP, assassinated in Mississippi.
- 1964 -- Miss. Freedom Summer Project - African American voter registration drive.
- 1965 -- Voting Rights Act pushed by LBG - invalidated the use of tests, other mechanisms to disencranchise blacks; black voter registration in the South increased from 1 million in 1964 to 3.1 million in 1968.
- 1965-1968 -- sit-ins, other peaceful demonstrations continued but violence began to increase, particularly after Malcolm X's assassination in 1965 and MLK's in 1968.
B. African-American Violent Protest
- Black Power movements -- first led by Malcolm X of the Nation of Islam, then by the Black Panthers (led by Huey Newton), advocated euqliaty by any means necessary.
- Watts Riot (1965) -- young African-Americans fought police and burned white-owned business; riots ensuded in other cities.
- 1965-1968 -- violent race riots occurred in over 100 cities.
C. Hisapnic-Americans
- César Chavez and the United Farm Workers led boycotts, other peaceful protests to win rights for Mexican-Americans in the Southwest.
- 1967 -- Aztlan Chicano Movement resisted assimilation and arranged boycotts of "racist" college classes throughout the West.
D. Women
- Publication of The Feminine Mystique by Betty Friedan (1963).
- NOW established in 1966, uses political system to create liberal change.
- Women's Liberation Movement -- came out of the anti-war movement, led deomnstrations and brought attention to gender inequality.
- Women's reproductive rights -- the pill, other contraceptives gained acceptance in the 1960's, Roe v. Wade protects abortion rights starting in 1972.
E. Gay Rights
- Stonewall Riot (1969) -- gay men fight back against an unfair police raid.
- 1973 -- American Psychological Society rescinds statement that homosexuality is a mental illness.
- 1975 -- The US Civil Service commission ended ban on government employment of homosexuals.
Chapter 29 Notes
I. Vietnam -- major events and chronology of US involvement
- 1950 -- US begins to provide financial assistance to French.
- 1954 -- Geneva accord divides Vietnam; Diem comes to power with US backing.
- 1955 -- French pullout; US military advisers begin training South Vietnamese.
- 1960 -- Vietcong (North Vietnamese-backed insurgency group in South Vietnam) created.
- 1961 -- Laos is lost; JFK intensifies US involvement.
- 1963 -- Buddhist monk protests; Diem overthrown and killed by CIA-backed coup; 16,000 US military advisors in S. Vietnam.
- 1964 -- Gulf of Tonkin Resolution allows LBJ to escalate military actions without congressional approval; US bombing of N. Vietnam begins.
- 1965 -- US combat troops land in Danang; 184,000 American troops on the ground by year's end.
- 1966 -- 385,000 US troops; B52 bombing of north begins.
- 1967 -- Beginning of anti-war demonstrations; Senate hearings on Vietnam begin; 485,600 troops.
- 1968 -- Tet Offensive -- Vietcong (with North Vietnamese army) attack major South Vietnamese cities, US forces repel the attack, killing 37,000 enemy troops in one month; My Lai Massacre -- US troops kill, rape and torture 500 villagers, army initially covers it up; LBJ announces that he won't run; peace talks with North Vietnam begin in Paris; 536,000 troops.
- 1969 -- bombing of Cambodia begins; US begins to withdraw troops; anti-war protests intensify; Ho Chi Minh dies; 475,000 troops at year's end.
- 1970 -- US and S. Vietnam invade Cambodia; Kent State killings, student protests close 400 universities; Congress repeals Gulf of Tonkin Resolution.
Tuesday, April 15, 2008
Chapter 27 Notes, Part II
C. Ike and the Cold War
1. Eisenhower continued Truman’s containment policy
2. As promised, he brought an end to the Korean War in 1953
3. To appease Republican hawks, Ike chose John Foster Dulles as Secretary of state. Dulles was rabidly anticommunist and an advocate of brinksmanship
4. Missile detection/defense systems were put in place in Alaska, a US missile command center created in the Rockies, and extensive (112,000) sq ft) bunker for the US government was set up in W. Virginia.
5. CIA actions- Operation Ajax (overthrew Iranian government and put Shah Reza Pahalvi in power) placed pro-American leaders in Philippines, Guatemala and South Vietnam; intensified anti-Soviet propaganda around the world.
6. Vietnam-France was having difficulty fighting off an insurgency led by the communist Ho Chi Minh movement and called for US assistance. A peace conference was held that divided Vietnam into Communist North and US-backed ‘democratic’ government led by unpopular Ngo Dinh Diem in the South until an election could be held in 1956 to reunify the country. When it became clear that the Ho Chi Minh would easily win the election, Diem and the US decided to keep Vietnam as 2 separate countries.
7. Suez crisis- Egyptian leader Nasser nationalized the British controlled Suez Canal. Britain, France, and Israel coordinated an attack to take the canal back by force. When the Soviets threatened to intervene, Ike persuaded the allies to withdraw.
8. Eisenhower Doctrine- US to use military aid and force to assist any Middle Eastern nation threatened by communist aggression. (Extension of Truman Doctrine of containment)
9. U2 Crisis (1960)- a US spy plane was shot down over USSR. US denied the existence of the plane but was forced to admit it once the Russians displayed the capture pilot on TV.
10. Cuba- Fidel Castro successfully overthrew US sponsored dictator Fulgencio Batista. Attempted to meet with US officials but was turned away; reached out for Soviet assistance instead.
1. Eisenhower continued Truman’s containment policy
2. As promised, he brought an end to the Korean War in 1953
3. To appease Republican hawks, Ike chose John Foster Dulles as Secretary of state. Dulles was rabidly anticommunist and an advocate of brinksmanship
4. Missile detection/defense systems were put in place in Alaska, a US missile command center created in the Rockies, and extensive (112,000) sq ft) bunker for the US government was set up in W. Virginia.
5. CIA actions- Operation Ajax (overthrew Iranian government and put Shah Reza Pahalvi in power) placed pro-American leaders in Philippines, Guatemala and South Vietnam; intensified anti-Soviet propaganda around the world.
6. Vietnam-France was having difficulty fighting off an insurgency led by the communist Ho Chi Minh movement and called for US assistance. A peace conference was held that divided Vietnam into Communist North and US-backed ‘democratic’ government led by unpopular Ngo Dinh Diem in the South until an election could be held in 1956 to reunify the country. When it became clear that the Ho Chi Minh would easily win the election, Diem and the US decided to keep Vietnam as 2 separate countries.
7. Suez crisis- Egyptian leader Nasser nationalized the British controlled Suez Canal. Britain, France, and Israel coordinated an attack to take the canal back by force. When the Soviets threatened to intervene, Ike persuaded the allies to withdraw.
8. Eisenhower Doctrine- US to use military aid and force to assist any Middle Eastern nation threatened by communist aggression. (Extension of Truman Doctrine of containment)
9. U2 Crisis (1960)- a US spy plane was shot down over USSR. US denied the existence of the plane but was forced to admit it once the Russians displayed the capture pilot on TV.
10. Cuba- Fidel Castro successfully overthrew US sponsored dictator Fulgencio Batista. Attempted to meet with US officials but was turned away; reached out for Soviet assistance instead.
Monday, April 14, 2008
Chapter 27 Notes, Part I (?)
I. The Eisenhower Presidency
A. Domestic Politics
1. McCarthy’s accusations, the stalemate in Korea, 20 years of Democratic Rule, and Eisenhower’s standing as a war hero easily allowed Republicans Eisenhower and Nixon to win the 1952 election over “egghead” Democrat Adlai Stevenson
2. Viewed as a return to peace and stability
3. Centrist who chose a path between Democratic liberalism and Republican conservatism
4. Restrained view of presidential authority- rarely intervened in legislative process (of course, Congress was Republican during his tenure).
5. Focused on balancing the federal budget; however, income tax reductions, minor recessions in ’53 and ’57, intensification of the cold war and arms race, as well as costly domestic programs (Interstate Highway System, St Lawrence Seaway, increased public housing and social security) led to growth of federal deficit from $257 billion in 950 to $291 billion by 1961
6. Ike disliked McCarthy but benefited from his rhetoric. Eventually, McCarthy antagonized the army (accused it of also being a haven for commies) leading to nationally televised Senate hearings in which the country got to see McCarthy at his worst. He was censured in 1954; died in 1957
B. Civil rights in the 50s
1. Eisenhower appointed Earl Warren as Chief Justice in 1953. The Warren Court would prove to be very proactive on Civil Rights legislation
2. Brown vs. Board of Education of Topeka- The Court unanimously ruled that separate was inherently unequal in education, thus reversing the 1896 Plessy vs. Ferguson decision. The Court called for gradual school desegregation.
3. Desegregation began to occur in the upper south; however in the Deep South, politicians and the public were bitterly opposed to it
4. Little Rock Nine (1957) nine African American students attempted to attend classes at Central High School in Little Rock, Arkansas. The Arkansas Governor called out the National Guard to block the students from entering the building. In response, Eisenhower sent federal troops to ensure the safety of the nine African American students. 90% of white Americans outside the South approved of Eisenhower’s action, lending support to the Civil Rights movement.
5. Civil Rights Act of 1957 and 1960- Proposed by Eisenhower, established a commission to investigate the systemic disenfranchisement of African Americans in the South.
6. Montgomery Bus Boycott (1955-56)- led by the Rev Martin Luther King Jr, after Rosa Parks effused to give up her seat to a white passenger. Dr King organized a year long bus boycott which led the Supreme Court to outlaw segregation in buses (Browder v Gayle, 1959)
A. Domestic Politics
1. McCarthy’s accusations, the stalemate in Korea, 20 years of Democratic Rule, and Eisenhower’s standing as a war hero easily allowed Republicans Eisenhower and Nixon to win the 1952 election over “egghead” Democrat Adlai Stevenson
2. Viewed as a return to peace and stability
3. Centrist who chose a path between Democratic liberalism and Republican conservatism
4. Restrained view of presidential authority- rarely intervened in legislative process (of course, Congress was Republican during his tenure).
5. Focused on balancing the federal budget; however, income tax reductions, minor recessions in ’53 and ’57, intensification of the cold war and arms race, as well as costly domestic programs (Interstate Highway System, St Lawrence Seaway, increased public housing and social security) led to growth of federal deficit from $257 billion in 950 to $291 billion by 1961
6. Ike disliked McCarthy but benefited from his rhetoric. Eventually, McCarthy antagonized the army (accused it of also being a haven for commies) leading to nationally televised Senate hearings in which the country got to see McCarthy at his worst. He was censured in 1954; died in 1957
B. Civil rights in the 50s
1. Eisenhower appointed Earl Warren as Chief Justice in 1953. The Warren Court would prove to be very proactive on Civil Rights legislation
2. Brown vs. Board of Education of Topeka- The Court unanimously ruled that separate was inherently unequal in education, thus reversing the 1896 Plessy vs. Ferguson decision. The Court called for gradual school desegregation.
3. Desegregation began to occur in the upper south; however in the Deep South, politicians and the public were bitterly opposed to it
4. Little Rock Nine (1957) nine African American students attempted to attend classes at Central High School in Little Rock, Arkansas. The Arkansas Governor called out the National Guard to block the students from entering the building. In response, Eisenhower sent federal troops to ensure the safety of the nine African American students. 90% of white Americans outside the South approved of Eisenhower’s action, lending support to the Civil Rights movement.
5. Civil Rights Act of 1957 and 1960- Proposed by Eisenhower, established a commission to investigate the systemic disenfranchisement of African Americans in the South.
6. Montgomery Bus Boycott (1955-56)- led by the Rev Martin Luther King Jr, after Rosa Parks effused to give up her seat to a white passenger. Dr King organized a year long bus boycott which led the Supreme Court to outlaw segregation in buses (Browder v Gayle, 1959)
Chapter 26 Notes
Chapter 26
I. The Postwar Boom
A. WWII Hangover?
1. Armed forces greatly reduced from 12 million in 1945 to 1.5 million by 1948.
2. Defense spending dropped from $76 billion in 1945 to $20 billion in 1946, leading to a loss of one million jobs in the defense industry.
3. Returning soldiers struggled to fit into a transformed economy.
B. G.I. Bill of Rights
1. Enacted in 1944 to soften the blow of an expected postwar recession by easing soldiers back into the work force.
2. Provided veterans with healthcare benefits, occupational counseling up to 52 weeks of unemployment payments as well as priority for certain jobs.
3. Government also provided low-interest loans for veterans to purchase homes and start businesses.
4. Moreover, $14.5 billion was spent between 1945- 1956 to pay for the education of 5.7 million veterans, allowing them eventual access to higher-paying professional jobs
5. This massive government subsidy not only helped veterans return to work but also increased demand for goods and services thus boosting the economy.
C. Other factors
1. Soldiers and people working in the war industries had saved $135 billion during WWII. With more leisure time and the renewed availability of consumer goods after the war, spending spiked.
2. 1945 tax cut for businesses led companies to increase capital spending.
3. Bretton Woods Agreement (1944)- creating of the International Monetary Fund (IMF) to stabilize global currencies and the World Bank to help Europe and Asia rebuild. Bretton Woods also led to the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT, 1947), which greatly reduced tariffs other international trade barriers.
4. As the only major economy untouched by the war, the US could buy raw materials cheaply (low demand) and sell industrial products (and agricultural products) to rebuilding nations (Europeans often used Marshall Plan funds to buy US goods).
5. 35% increase in industrial productivity due to automation and other scientific advances
6. Increase in military spending as the US enters the arms race with the Soviet Union (after Soviets detonate an atomic bomb in 1949) and the Korean War (1950-1953). Defense budget increases nearly 4X during the decade.
II. Early Cold War
A. Eastern Europe
1. Disagreements between the US and the Soviet Union began over the fate of Eastern Europe, which Stalin insisted should be a ‘buffer zone’ and a Soviet sphere of influence.
2. Truman viewed Soviet control of Eastern Europe as a betrayal of democratic aims and as a dangerous appeasement of a dictatorial, totalitarian regime.
3. Economically, Soviet control of Eastern Europe would close off valuable access to markets and sources of raw materials
4. Politically, Truman and the Democratic Party feared that a soft stance against Stalin would lead to a loss of support from Eastern-European-American voters.
5. Emboldened by US monopoly of nuclear weapons and public opinion, Truman decided to take a tough stance against Stalin immediately after WWII
6. In early 1946, Stalin closed Eastern Europe to American business and influence
7. Arms race began as US pushed to increase nuclear arsenal and the Soviet Union spared no expense to develop an atomic bomb (August 1949). By 1953, both countries possessed hydrogen or thermonuclear bombs (10x more powerful than the bombs used in Hiroshima and Nagasaki)
B. Containment
1. Concerned that Stalin wanted to also seize control of Turkey and Greece (for dominance in the Mediterranean and the Middle East), Truman pushed for military assistance for these countries ($400 million)- this was the beginning of the Truman Doctrine (Containment).
2. Truman Doctrine vowed that the US would assist nations threatened by Communist takeover.
3. National Security Act of 1947- established the National Security Council (NSC) to advise the President and the CIA to gather information and perform covert operations. It also began the transformation of the War and Navy Departments into the Department of Defense and led to the creation of the Joint Chiefs of Staff.
4. Marshall Plan- Massive financial assistance ($17 billion) to keep Western Europe (especially France and Italy) from falling to Communism
5. North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO)- US joined the Western European military alliance, which vows mutual defense (thus extending our nuclear umbrella to Western Europe)
III. The Cold War gets Hot
A. Berlin Crisis
1. 1948- Stalin blocks overland access to West Berlin in response to allies unifying their zones (American, French, and British).
2. Berlin Airlift- led by the US, allies began a massive airlift to supply West Berlin residents (supply planes landing every three minutes for almost one year)
3. US sends B-29s to bases in England and Truman hints that he will use the bomb if necessary
4. Stalin relented in May 1949
5. Allies move to create and rearm a West German state (Federal Republic of Germany), Soviets respond by creating the German Democratic Republic (East Germany)
6. US joins NATO in July 1949
B. Korean War
1. Having failed to block the Communist Party’s success in China, Truman was under pressure to take a tough stance in Asia
2. After WWII, Korea had been split into north and south along the 38th parallel
3. In June 1950, North Korea invaded South Korea, controlling most of the territory by September
4. Truman deployed US military (without declaring war) under General MacArthur to counter the offensive. Within two weeks, South Korean and US forces pushed the North Koreans back almost to the Chinese border
5. Later the same year, Chinese Forces (300,000) joined the North Koreans pushing South Korean and US forces back to the 38th parallel
6. Trench warfare ensued around the 38th parallel for the next two years
7. After a long and costly stalemate, an armistice was reached in July 1953 which kept Korea split at the 38th Parallel
8. The Conflict cost the lives of 54,000 Americans, 900,00 Chinese and 800,000 North and South Korean soldiers. It also caused 2 million civilian deaths due to carpet-bombing and famine
9. The Korean War also set the precedent for “undeclared war” by the US, increased the animosity with China, Prompted US involvement in Vietnam, set the stage for a McCarthyism (the 2nd Red Scare) and intensified the economic boom
IV. The Cold War at Home
A. Insuring Loyalty
1. Exposure of a spy ring that had provided atomic secrets to the Soviets in 1945 as well as State Department leaks to a pro-Communist magazine raised fear and prompted criticism that Truman was soft on communism
2. In reaction, Truman established the Federal Employee Loyalty Program (1947)- barring anyone associated with the Communist Party or of questionable “sympathetic association” from Federal employment
3. 4.7 million job holders and employees underwent “loyalty checks” between 1947-1952
4. Beyond association with the Communist Party, other signs of disloyalty included: liking foreign films, favoring unions or civil rights and being gay
B. Anti-Communist Crusade
1. Truman’s measures set off a chain of events to uncover subversives
2. J. Edgar Hoover, still head of the FBI, led the crusade to uncover reds on college campuses
3. State and local governments as well as major corporations began their own loyalty programs
4. In 1947, the House Un-American Activities Committee (HUAC) was set up and began hearings. In 1950, McCarthy began similar hearings in the Senate
5. HUAC not only investigated “subversives” in government but also in major industries, particularly Hollywood. Studios began to blacklist anyone (Orson Welles, Charlie Chaplin and many others) associated with subversive activities and canceling any productions that could be deemed “subversive”
C. Anti-Communism turns on Truman
1. Alger Hiss-US State Department Official accused of being linked to the communist Party, he was eventually convicted, setting off allegations that the Truman administration and the Democratic Party were teeming with Communists
2. Julius and Ethel Rosenberg (1950)- accused, convicted and sentenced to death for alleged role in passing atomic secrets to the soviet union
3. Joe McCarthy- Republican senator, elected in 1946 by falsely claming to be a wounded WWII veteran. Joe McCarthy concocted a list of “commiecrats” in the Truman Administration, Senate hearings were held and proved McCarthy’s accusations to be a hoax. Still McCarthy continued his persecution throughout the Korean War and gained appeal among some conservatives, blue-collar workers and Democratic Catholics.
I. The Postwar Boom
A. WWII Hangover?
1. Armed forces greatly reduced from 12 million in 1945 to 1.5 million by 1948.
2. Defense spending dropped from $76 billion in 1945 to $20 billion in 1946, leading to a loss of one million jobs in the defense industry.
3. Returning soldiers struggled to fit into a transformed economy.
B. G.I. Bill of Rights
1. Enacted in 1944 to soften the blow of an expected postwar recession by easing soldiers back into the work force.
2. Provided veterans with healthcare benefits, occupational counseling up to 52 weeks of unemployment payments as well as priority for certain jobs.
3. Government also provided low-interest loans for veterans to purchase homes and start businesses.
4. Moreover, $14.5 billion was spent between 1945- 1956 to pay for the education of 5.7 million veterans, allowing them eventual access to higher-paying professional jobs
5. This massive government subsidy not only helped veterans return to work but also increased demand for goods and services thus boosting the economy.
C. Other factors
1. Soldiers and people working in the war industries had saved $135 billion during WWII. With more leisure time and the renewed availability of consumer goods after the war, spending spiked.
2. 1945 tax cut for businesses led companies to increase capital spending.
3. Bretton Woods Agreement (1944)- creating of the International Monetary Fund (IMF) to stabilize global currencies and the World Bank to help Europe and Asia rebuild. Bretton Woods also led to the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT, 1947), which greatly reduced tariffs other international trade barriers.
4. As the only major economy untouched by the war, the US could buy raw materials cheaply (low demand) and sell industrial products (and agricultural products) to rebuilding nations (Europeans often used Marshall Plan funds to buy US goods).
5. 35% increase in industrial productivity due to automation and other scientific advances
6. Increase in military spending as the US enters the arms race with the Soviet Union (after Soviets detonate an atomic bomb in 1949) and the Korean War (1950-1953). Defense budget increases nearly 4X during the decade.
II. Early Cold War
A. Eastern Europe
1. Disagreements between the US and the Soviet Union began over the fate of Eastern Europe, which Stalin insisted should be a ‘buffer zone’ and a Soviet sphere of influence.
2. Truman viewed Soviet control of Eastern Europe as a betrayal of democratic aims and as a dangerous appeasement of a dictatorial, totalitarian regime.
3. Economically, Soviet control of Eastern Europe would close off valuable access to markets and sources of raw materials
4. Politically, Truman and the Democratic Party feared that a soft stance against Stalin would lead to a loss of support from Eastern-European-American voters.
5. Emboldened by US monopoly of nuclear weapons and public opinion, Truman decided to take a tough stance against Stalin immediately after WWII
6. In early 1946, Stalin closed Eastern Europe to American business and influence
7. Arms race began as US pushed to increase nuclear arsenal and the Soviet Union spared no expense to develop an atomic bomb (August 1949). By 1953, both countries possessed hydrogen or thermonuclear bombs (10x more powerful than the bombs used in Hiroshima and Nagasaki)
B. Containment
1. Concerned that Stalin wanted to also seize control of Turkey and Greece (for dominance in the Mediterranean and the Middle East), Truman pushed for military assistance for these countries ($400 million)- this was the beginning of the Truman Doctrine (Containment).
2. Truman Doctrine vowed that the US would assist nations threatened by Communist takeover.
3. National Security Act of 1947- established the National Security Council (NSC) to advise the President and the CIA to gather information and perform covert operations. It also began the transformation of the War and Navy Departments into the Department of Defense and led to the creation of the Joint Chiefs of Staff.
4. Marshall Plan- Massive financial assistance ($17 billion) to keep Western Europe (especially France and Italy) from falling to Communism
5. North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO)- US joined the Western European military alliance, which vows mutual defense (thus extending our nuclear umbrella to Western Europe)
III. The Cold War gets Hot
A. Berlin Crisis
1. 1948- Stalin blocks overland access to West Berlin in response to allies unifying their zones (American, French, and British).
2. Berlin Airlift- led by the US, allies began a massive airlift to supply West Berlin residents (supply planes landing every three minutes for almost one year)
3. US sends B-29s to bases in England and Truman hints that he will use the bomb if necessary
4. Stalin relented in May 1949
5. Allies move to create and rearm a West German state (Federal Republic of Germany), Soviets respond by creating the German Democratic Republic (East Germany)
6. US joins NATO in July 1949
B. Korean War
1. Having failed to block the Communist Party’s success in China, Truman was under pressure to take a tough stance in Asia
2. After WWII, Korea had been split into north and south along the 38th parallel
3. In June 1950, North Korea invaded South Korea, controlling most of the territory by September
4. Truman deployed US military (without declaring war) under General MacArthur to counter the offensive. Within two weeks, South Korean and US forces pushed the North Koreans back almost to the Chinese border
5. Later the same year, Chinese Forces (300,000) joined the North Koreans pushing South Korean and US forces back to the 38th parallel
6. Trench warfare ensued around the 38th parallel for the next two years
7. After a long and costly stalemate, an armistice was reached in July 1953 which kept Korea split at the 38th Parallel
8. The Conflict cost the lives of 54,000 Americans, 900,00 Chinese and 800,000 North and South Korean soldiers. It also caused 2 million civilian deaths due to carpet-bombing and famine
9. The Korean War also set the precedent for “undeclared war” by the US, increased the animosity with China, Prompted US involvement in Vietnam, set the stage for a McCarthyism (the 2nd Red Scare) and intensified the economic boom
IV. The Cold War at Home
A. Insuring Loyalty
1. Exposure of a spy ring that had provided atomic secrets to the Soviets in 1945 as well as State Department leaks to a pro-Communist magazine raised fear and prompted criticism that Truman was soft on communism
2. In reaction, Truman established the Federal Employee Loyalty Program (1947)- barring anyone associated with the Communist Party or of questionable “sympathetic association” from Federal employment
3. 4.7 million job holders and employees underwent “loyalty checks” between 1947-1952
4. Beyond association with the Communist Party, other signs of disloyalty included: liking foreign films, favoring unions or civil rights and being gay
B. Anti-Communist Crusade
1. Truman’s measures set off a chain of events to uncover subversives
2. J. Edgar Hoover, still head of the FBI, led the crusade to uncover reds on college campuses
3. State and local governments as well as major corporations began their own loyalty programs
4. In 1947, the House Un-American Activities Committee (HUAC) was set up and began hearings. In 1950, McCarthy began similar hearings in the Senate
5. HUAC not only investigated “subversives” in government but also in major industries, particularly Hollywood. Studios began to blacklist anyone (Orson Welles, Charlie Chaplin and many others) associated with subversive activities and canceling any productions that could be deemed “subversive”
C. Anti-Communism turns on Truman
1. Alger Hiss-US State Department Official accused of being linked to the communist Party, he was eventually convicted, setting off allegations that the Truman administration and the Democratic Party were teeming with Communists
2. Julius and Ethel Rosenberg (1950)- accused, convicted and sentenced to death for alleged role in passing atomic secrets to the soviet union
3. Joe McCarthy- Republican senator, elected in 1946 by falsely claming to be a wounded WWII veteran. Joe McCarthy concocted a list of “commiecrats” in the Truman Administration, Senate hearings were held and proved McCarthy’s accusations to be a hoax. Still McCarthy continued his persecution throughout the Korean War and gained appeal among some conservatives, blue-collar workers and Democratic Catholics.
Monday, April 7, 2008
Chapter 25 Notes: Ramifications of World War II
Domestic
- Economic Expansion -- GNP grows from $100 billion to $210 billion between 1940-1945, national debt from $40 billion to $260 billion.
- US government budget increased from $9.5 billion to $92 billion between 1940-1945. Tax revenue increased 20-fold. (!)
- Mass population movement -- 15 million men moved because of military service. 6 million people (mostly from South) moved away from farms to work in urban areas.
- Growth of Western cities, Sunbelt industrialization. Cities like San Diego (+90%), Albuquerque (+100%), Seattle, Denver, etc. saw huge population increases.
- Wages increased dramatically - average yearly salary more than doubled between 1940 and 1945; size of middle class also doubled. (!)
- Organized labor -- union membership increased from 9 million to 15 million during war (35% of nonagricultural employment); unions became more politically conservative.
- Women in the workforce increased from less than 25% to over 33% between 1940-1945. Large increase in married women working (divorce rate increased from 16% to 27%).
- Increased African American participation in industrial workforce, civil service -- average yearly salary increased from $457 to $1976. One million African Americans served in armed forces, 7,000 black officers by 1945. Increased self-esteem, educational opportunities for black veterans led to Civil Rights movement.
- Increased opportunities for Native Americans in industry, armed forces (Navajo “code talkers”) -- move away from reservations; established National Congress of American Indians to defend past treaties, reservations.
- Mexican-Americans -- 350,000 served in Armed Forces (non-segregated units), U.S. government negotiated temporary worker agreement with Mexico.
- Japanese-Americans -- over 100,000 Japanese, Japanese--Americans confined to “relocation centers”, forced to sell their property at an estimated loss of $2 billion. In effort to show loyalty, 100,000 Japanese-Americans joined army. One Japanese-American combat unit was most decorated in WWII.
- Homosexuals in the military -- thousands of gay men, women fought in WWII but were often discriminated against. Veteran’s Benevolent Association became first major gay rights organization.
- Higher Education -- Government spent $14.5 billion between 1945-1956 to send 5.7 million veterans to college, technical schools through the GI Bill.
International
- Yalta Conference -- The Yalta Conference, sometimes called the Crimea Conference, was the wartime meeting from February 4, to 11, 1945 between the heads of government of the United States, the United Kingdom, and the Soviet Union. Delegations were headed by Franklin D. Roosevelt, Winston Churchill, and Joseph Stalin, respectively. Made the unconditional surrender of Germany the primary goal of the Allies. Stalin agreed to assist the US in its war with Japan 90 days after Nazi surrender and to recognize Chiang Kai-shek as the legitimate ruler of China. Stalin also agreed to bring the Soviet Union into the U.N., as long as security council members would have veto power. First wartime conference was in Tehran, then Cairo (Roosevelt did not attend), and Yalta.
- United Nations -- United Nations established in 1945 as a replacement for the League of Nations. Today, five main victors of WWII comprise the Security Council permanent members with veto power: the United States of America, Russia (replaced the Soviet Union), the United Kingdom, France, and the People’s Republic of China (which replaced the Republic of China).
- Nuremberg Trials (1946-1949) -- international court set up for trials of high level Nazi officials for war crimes, crimes against humanity. Famous convictions -- Hess and Göring.
- The creation of Israel and an independent Arab state (in the former British colony of Palestine) is endorsed by UN in November 1947. State of Israel was proclaimed in Tel Aviv on May 14, 1948.
- Marshall Plan (named after US Secretary of State, George Marshall) 1947-1952. US donated $13 billion for Europe to rebuild (money divided on a per capita basis -- UK, France, Germany, Italy got the bulk).
- 1947 -- “Truman Doctrine” - calls for the containment of Communism. “the policy of the United States to support free peoples who are resisting attempted subjugation by armed minorities or by outside pressures.”
- 1948 -- Berlin Blockade - Soviet Union controlled East Germany where Berlin located. Berlin divided into East (Soviet controlled) and West (US, UK, France controlled). To starve out the Western forces, Soviet forces denied passage of supplies over East Germany territory thus blockading W. Berlin. US led a massive airlift of supplies, eventually the Soviets relented.
- Chinese Revolution (1911-1949) -- Chiang Kai-shek (Jiang Jie Shi) ruled between 1925-1949 as head of the Guangdong (Nationalist Government). Fought civil war with Communists under Mao Dzedong between 1946-1949. Mao emerged victorious as Guangdong government and army fled to Taiwan allowing the Communist Party to establish the People’s Republic of China.
Subscribe to:
Comments (Atom)